Roman Life
Daily life in 124 A.D.
The Roman day was divided into twelve hours; the hours of night were not counted. Since each hour was one-twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset, its length varied with the season of the year. On March 20 and September 23, when darkness and light were equal, Roman hours were equivalent to ours at 60 minutes each. On December 22 the day was less than nine of our hours long, and each hour not quite forty-five minutes, while on June 21 a Roman day was over fifteen modern hours long and each hour about seventy-five minutes long.
Because daylight was so necessary to Roman life, the day began at dawn. Even before daylight, boys were on their way to school and wagons brought fresh produce to markets and to the royal kitchen. Social status very much dictated how Romans spent their days, but most nobles and free men began their business at about the third hour of the day - around nine o'clock in modern time - and might work until the ninth or tenth hour. Except on extraordinary occasions, a Roman citizen's morning was over by the fifth hour, the usual time for lunch. Then came the midday rest, which lasted for an hour or more. If necessary, business was taken up again in the afternoon and might continue until the ninth or tenth hour, but since there was no adequate lighting in public places sessions of the Senate had to be concluded before dark.
On an ordinary day, after the siesta a Roman citizen was ready for his daily visit to the baths. There he found space to rest, stroll about, meeting friends and mingling with other citizens. A Roman bath generally consisted of a visit to a warm anteroom (tepidarium) to warm up, followed by the caldarium, the hot room where they took their bath in steaming water and scraped sweat from their bodies with a curved metal blade called a strigil. Following this they went into the frigidarium for a cold bath, afterwards being rubbed with linen towels and anointed with fragrant oils.
After the bath came dinner, either privately or with friends. This was followed by conversation or entertainment in the dining room until the guests left for home and bed.
For most Roman boys, school was a part of everyday life. A boy went to school every day of the week, except for holidays and days of celebration. A boy of good family was attended by a paedagogus, a trustworthy slave who escorted him to school, stayed during the session, and then saw him safely home again. For all boys, the school day began before sunrise and pupils brought candles to study by until daybreak. Classes lasted until lunch and were resumed in the afternoon after the siesta.
Young pupils used wax tablets, writing with a stilus, a pointed piece of wood, bone, or metal shaped like a pencil. Later they learned to use a reed pen and to write with ink on papyrus. The use of Roman numerals made arithmetic more difficult than it is with Arabic numerals. Mental arithmetic was emphasized, but pupils were also taught to count with their fingers and to use an abacus (counting board). Memory training was thought so important that every pupil had to memorize many wise sayings, and above all, the Twelve Tables of the Law. The epics of Homer were long the standard textbook of grammar schools, and along with the Greek language students were taught geography, mythology, antiquities, history, and ethics.
Judging from grim references in the poems of Juvenal and Martial to the use of rod and ferule, discipline in schools was thoroughly Roman in its severity. Teachers appealed at times to the natural rivalry between boys and prizes were offered for students who did the best work. The atmosphere in schools may have been very tense, as all the boys were in competition to move on to acquire titles and the easiest way to do so would be to be selected as an Imperial page.
For observation and practical experience in duties he would later undertake, a young man attached himself for a time as an apprentice to an older man distinguished in jurisprudence, administration, diplomacy or military tactics. Governors, generals and senators were attended by a staff of young men whom they took with them at state expense, for personal or political reasons. These youths often had duties to perform in their liege's staff that coincided with the work of slaves, and were considered close or equal to slaves in rank. Duties for a page included work in the kitchen, folding clothes, attending to his master with a lamp at night, holding towels while his master bathed, work in the stables and work dressing, shaving, and bathing his master. In many cases, pages became lovers of their master, and compliance was expected if the young man hoped to move on in rank after his apprenticeship was completed.
It took many slaves to keep a household running, especially one as large as Villa Adriana. Slaves were aquired from public auctions, where there were many ways to judge the merchandise. Imported slaves had their feet whitened with chalk, and slaves from the East had their ears pierced to show their origin. When bids were to be asked for a slave, he mounted a stone or platform. From his neck hung a scroll describing his character, and this scroll served as a guarantee to the purchaser - if a slave had defects not shown in his guarantee, the dealer had to take him back in six months or make good the buyer's loss. Slaves were stripped of clothes and made to move about, closely examined by the buyer. If the dealer could make no guarantee about a slave, a cap was put on his head at the sale and the buyer took all risks.
Once purchased, a slave became the legal property of his master. A slave had many tasks, but many of them were regulated to a certain few jobs. Each part of the house had its special staff of slaves, often divided into groups of ten, with a separate superintendent for each group - one for kitchen, another for dining rooms, another for bedrooms. Doors were guarded by special slaves, sometimes chained to the door like watchdogs so they were literally kept at their post. Noble men had a slave to shave him, another to care for his feet, another to look after his clothes. Noble women had a hairdresser and personal maid as well, and besides these each had no fewer than three or four attendants to assist with his bath.
Much of the slave's treatment by his master and quality of life depended on the temperament of his owner. Hadrian passed several laws for the welfare of slaves, including a law proclaiming that masters no longer had the right to beat or kill their slaves, and that the master of a sick slave left to die could be tried for murder. However, public opinion tended to sway in favor of the slave masters, even if they broke these laws. Slaves were fed on coarse food and were paid with a bushel of grain each month. They received a tunic every year, and cloak and a pair of wooden shoes every two years. Worn-out clothing was returned to the slave's master to be used in papyrus or as cleaning rags.
Roman soldiers in the royal guard received small wages and the same provisions as slaves. A soldier served a term of 6-16 years in the Roman army, and was sometimes recalled to duty after that. The main task of soldiers in Villa Adriana would be to stand on guard all over the villa, particularly around the Emperor's quarters. There was an automatic death penalty for sleeping on the job, but soldiers were only afforded a few hours of rest every day.
A soldier's work in Hadrian's empire did not end at guarding and defending Rome. Soldiers oversaw and labored on Hadrian's many building projects, and though slaves and laborers worked on these structures it was the soldiers who were responsible for making sure it all fell into place.
Soldiers bathed and ate with the slaves and rarely mingled with the nobles. In addition, many of them were illiterate and uneducated. Soldiers were expected to remain unmarried while on duty, and it was difficult for a soldier to marry while active in the Roman army anyway.
Roman Food
Apples, pears, plums and quinces were native to Italy, and careful attention was given to their cultivation. Abundant and inexpensive when in season, these fruits were commonplace in Hadrian's Rome. More exotic and expensive fruits were apricots, peaches, pomegranates and cherries. Nuts were also a delicacy, including almonds, filberts, hazelnuts, pistachios and walnuts.
Vegetables available to the Romans included artichokes, asparagus, beans, beets, cabbage, carrots, chicory, cucumbers, garlic, lentils, melons, onions, peas, poppy seed, pumpkins, radishes, and turnips. Nobles rarely ate onions or beans, as these foods were considered unrefined. Cress and lettuce were extremely popular for salads, as well as mallows.
Many plants were cultivated for seasoning, including poppy seeds, which were eaten with honey for dessert or sprinkled over bread before baking. Anise, cumin, fennel, mint, and mustard were raised everywhere. Spices, especially pepper, were imported in large quantities from the Orient.
Beef was eaten by the Romans from early times, but its use was a mark of luxury. Ordinary citizens ate beef only on special occasions, such as when a cow had been sacrificed to the gods. Probably the great size of the carcass had much to do with the rarity of its use at a time when meat could be kept fresh only in the coldest weather. Ordinary Romans used cattle for draft and dairy purposes much more than for food.
Pork, the choicest domestic meat, was widely used by rich and poor alike. Mutton and veal were also on the Roman menu, but were even more of a delicacy than beef. Goats' meat was eaten only by the lower classes. Romans raised chickens, ducks, geese and pigeons. Guinea fowls were expensive and peacocks even more highly valued, served chiefly at imperial banquets. Hares and boars were also eaten, but one of the greatest delicacies was roasted dormouse.
No article of food brought higher prices than fresh fish of rare kinds. Oysters, mullet, and turbot were among the kinds of fish eaten by Romans, as well as many different species of fish that we do not recognize the Roman names of.
The Romans used dairy products freely, including milk, cream, curds, whey, and cheese. They drank the milk of sheep and goats as well as that of cows, and cheese was made from all three kinds of milk. Cheese made from ewes' milk was thought to be more digestible, though less palatable, than cheese made from cows' milk. The Romans occasionally used butter as a salve, but never as a food.
Honey was an important farm product, because on the table and in cooking it took the place of sugar, which was unknown to Romans. Salt, used for seasoning and as a preservative, was at first obtained by mining and by evaporating the water from sea water.
In addition to wheat, Romans had barley, oats, and rye. These grains were used in everything from porridge to bread. There were several qualities of bread, depending on the flour and the kind of grain. The very best bread was made of fine wheat flour. Breads made of course wheat, of flour and bran, or of bran alone were called panis plebeius and were eaten by soldiers, slaves, and poor Romans. For the very wealthy, cakes and confections were also made with fine flour.
Among foods, olives were next in importance to wheat. Olives have many uses, but were most valuable for their oil. The wealthy had the best olive oil, which was produced from olives not yet fully ripe, while the lower classes used oil from ripe olives. Olives were also an important food as fruit and were eaten both fresh and preserved.
Although grapes were eaten both fresh and dried, their chief importance was for winemaking. Next to water and milk, wine was the most common drink of all classes. Wine was always diluted heavily with water, and to drink wine straight was considered uncivilized. More rare than wine was a favorite drink of the noble classes, muslum, which was four parts wine and one part honey. Another popular drink was mead, which was made with water and honey fermented together. The Romans also made cider from apples, wines from mulberries and dates, and various cordials from aromatic plants. Tea and coffee were unknown.
Breakfast, called jentaculum by Romans, was eaten in the early morning and was usually very simple. It often consisted of bread, dry or dipped in wine or sprinkled with salt. Raisins, olives, and cheese were added by wealthier Romans. For the extremely wealthy, eggs were added to the breakfast platter, along with muslum or milk. Workmen pressed for time ate breakfast on their way to work, and schoolboys stopped at a bakery to buy a pancake for a hasty meal.
Lunch was usually a cold meal served before the daily siesta, and was called prandium. It consisted of bread, olives, cheese, fruit, nuts, and cold meat from the dinner of the day before. Only the wealthy had a hot lunch, consisting of warm meat and vegetables.
Dinner was called cena and was the most important meal of the day. Guests were almost always entertained for dinner, and were absolutely always entertained by those of high social class. Even the simplest dinner was civided into three parts: appetizers, dinner proper, and dessert. At elaborate dinners, each part was served in several courses.
The appetizers consisted of fresh oysters and other shellfish, salt-water fish, and uncooked vegetables and salads. Sometimes there were eggs and piquant sauces for these appetizers.
The main part of the dinner consisted of fish, meat, fowls, and vegetables often served in several courses. Three was considered a moderate number, and more than six courses was considered distasteful. With this part of the meal, diluted wine was drunk.
For dessert, pastry, sweets, nuts, and fruit - fresh or preserved - were eaten. With dessert, wine was drunk freely, and after dinner was over the real drinking began.
Since the dinner marked the close of the day's work, it varied with the season of the year and the social position of the family. Dinner usually lasted until bedtime, extending for three or four hours at least. At dinners where both sexes were present, time was passed in conversation or listening to a slave read out loud. At "gentlemen's dinners" other forms of entertainment were provided, such as music, dancing, juggling, and wrestling. At elaborate dinners, souvenirs were sometimes distributed.
There was a ceremony to the serving of dinner that was always observed. When guests arrived, they were ushered into the dining room - called the atrium - where gods were solemnly invoked. Then they took their place on couches, reclining around the atrium. Their hands were washed by slaves and their shoes removed before the meal began.
Men in Hadrian's time followed his example of reviving Greek customs, and after dessert sent the women away to follow dinner with a wine supper. Here men wore floral crowns, believing that the smell of flowers would ward off drunkenness, while throwing dice, playing games, and discussing philosophy.
Roman Clothing
The clothing of the Romans was simple; ordinarily only two or three articles besides shoes were worn. Clothing of men and women differed much less than ours. There were two classes of clothing, named from the way they were worn: indutus (put on) and amictus (wrapped around.) The first class may be called undergarments and the second outer garments, though these terms don't represent the Latin words.
Romans used wool, linen, cotton and silk for clothing. Undergarments were made of linen, but Italian linen was of poor quality and the wealthy imported fine linen from Egypt. Egyptian linen was soft and almost transparent. Wool was used for togas and tunics, and the best native wools were produced in southern Italy - the most expensive and high-quality coming from the neighborhood of Tarentum. Silk came from China, and garments made of pure silk were extremely rare and very expensive.
White was the prevailing color for clothing in Rome, but the lower classes preferred shades of undyed wool that didn't need to be cleaned as often as white garments. From Canusium came brown wool with a reddish tinge, from Baetica in Spain light yellow wool, from Mutina gray and from Linguria dark gray-black. Dyes the Romans used included a shade of garnet obtained from a native mollusk, Tyrian (royal) purple, and violet. Wool dyed violet - a popular shade - was very expensive, but cloth of genuine Tyrian purple cost ten times as much.
Home weaving was uncommon by Hadrian's time, and fabric of any desired quality could be bought in shops. Some articles of clothing came from the loom ready to wear, but most garments required some sewing. Romans used large needles made of bone or bronze, and their thread was coarse and heavy. Because of this, stitches were long and fine sewing very difficult.
Clothing was cleaned by professional fullers, who washed, pressed, bleached or redyed soiled clothing. Cleaning was expensive but necessary for the well-to-do Roman citizen, for the heavy garments had to look fresh.
As underwear, men wore a subligaculum, essentially a pair of shorts. Men who were old or in poor health sometimes wound strips of woolen cloth around their legs for warmth, but this was considered a mark of old age and weakness, not to be used by healthy men. Women also wore subligaculums, as well as a belt or sash under or over her clothing to support her breasts.
Free men did not appear in public in Rome with bare feet unless they were extremely poor. Two styles of footwear were in use: soleae (sandals) and calcei (shoes.) The former were merely soles of leather attached to the feet by straps, and customarily their use was limited to the house. Sandals were never worn during meals - slaves removed them and kept them until the meal was over, so the phrase soleas poscere (ask for one's sandals) came to mean "prepare to leave." The Roman shoe was made of leather on a last. It covered the upper part of the foot as well as the sole, and was fastened with laces or straps. When a man went outdoors he wore shoes, though they were heavier and less comfortable than sandals. Senators wore thick-soled shoes, open on the inside at the ankle, and fastened by wide straps. These straps ran from the sole and were wrapped around the leg and tied above the instep. Patricians wore similar shoes, but made of red leather with an ivory or silver cresent shape on the outside to the ankle. Poor people wore coarse shoes of untanned leather, while laborers and soldiers wore wooden shoes or stoutly made half-boots called caligae. No stockings were worn, but people with tender feet sometimes wrapped them in woolen cloth. A well-fitting shoe was of great importance for appearance's sake, and to appear in a patched or broken shoe was considered a great humiliation.
Women's shoes were like men's, but made of finer and softer leather, sometimes white or gilded or dyed a bright color. Shoes for winter often had cork soles, and thick soles were occasionally worn to make a woman look taller. House sandals were of any preferred color - some were beautifully decorated with pearls.
The tunic was adopted in very early Roman times and came to be the chief garment of the average citizen and the slave. It was a plain woolen shirt, sewed together at the sides and on the shoulders. Openings were left for head and arms, and sleeves were formed by the cloth extending beyond the shoulders, but these were usually short and did not quite cover the upper arm. A tunic reached from the shoulders to the calf of the wearer, who could shorten it by pulling it up through a belt. Usually it covered the knees in front and was slightly shorter in the back. The tunic of the ordinary citizen was made of plain wool. Knights had stripes of garnet in their tunics, one running from each shoulder to the bottom of the tunic in both back and front. Under his tunic a solder wore a plain white one.
No Roman of any social or political standing appeared at a social function or in public in a tunic. Young boys of wealthy families wore a toga praetexta until he reached manhood, which had a border of purple or garnet. The toga for men was pure white, and it enveloped the whole figure and fell to the feet. A toga for a man five feet six inches tall would have been about four and a half yards long. The lower corners were rounded, and a triangular section was cut off each upper corner. The garment was then folded lengthwise so that the lower section was wider than the other. The upper part was called the sinus. One end hung from the left shoulder, reaching to the ground in front. The folded edge lay on the left shoulder against the neck. The rest of the folded length was brought across the back under the right arm, across the breast and over the left shoulder again. The folds of the sinus were deep enough to serve as a pocket, and often did.
The toga of the ordinary citizen was left the natural color of the wool from which it was made, and was called toga pura or plain toga. When treated with chalk to make the garment brightly white it was called toga candida, and men running for office all wore this toga. (Fun fact: because of this they were called candidati, which is why we use the word candidates today!)
Magistrates, censors, and generals wore a toga with a border of royal purple. Emperors wore crimson togas embroidered in gold. Men in mourning wore dingy togas of black or gray wool.
Wool cloaks or capes were worn in the winter or by soldiers to fight off the elements. The cape was short and light, fastened by a brooch or buckle at the right shoulder. Sometimes the cloak had a hood or cowl which the wearer could pull over his head. However, men of the upper classes in Rome ordinarily went bareheaded except for in bad weather. While traveling, a man of the upper classes sometimes protected his head with a broad-rimmed hat. Poor men and slaves working in the sun or cold wore a felt cap called a pilleus.
Soldiers wore riding shorts called bracae, but men of class never wore shorts under their tunics and it was considered barbaric to wear pants in public.
In Hadrian's time it was fashionable to be clean-shaven with short hair, and when a boy assumed the toga of manhood his hair was cut off as an offering to the gods.
Rings were the only kind of jewelry worn by most Roman men, and good taste limited him to a single ring. Usually these were seal rings, making them functional as well as ornamental, as the man could use them to seal his letters and stamp documents. Rings were often worn at a joint in the finger, not pushed down to the base of the finger as they are today.
Ordinarily a woman wore an under tunic, and an outer tunic. Her under tunic corresponded to a chemise or a slip, and it came to her knees and was more fitting than the outer tunic. She also wore a scarf indoors and a shawl outdoors.
The distinctive dress of the Roman matron was the stola. It usually had sleeves formed by the width of the garment over the shoulders, with gatherings in the sleeves sometimes adorned with buttons or fancy pins. The stola was drawn up around the waist through a belt, and on the lower edge of the stola there was a border of crimson or purple, as well as a narrow colored border around the neck. The shawl worn with the stola was called a palla, and one often wore it with one end through over the left shoulder from behind, falling straight in front, the rest drawn around the back and brought forward over or under the right arm. This wrap could also be drawn over the head, although scarves and veils were sometimes worn. A young girl sometimes wore only one tunic in the house, and outside she wore both inner and outer tunics, but a woman always wore both tunics, even in the house.
Women did not wear hats, but their hair was always carefully arranged. Styles of hairdressing varied, but in Hadrian's time they were particularly elaborate, inspired by the hairstyles of his wife. A young girl usually wore her hair in a knot at the back of her neck, but some girls had curls or bangs. Hairpins were made of ivory, silver, or gold and often set with jewels. Women used cream, powder, and rouge to enhance their appearance, and often dyed their hair. In Hadrian's time, it was popular to have hair of a golden-red color in imitation of the Greeks. They also added false hair and wreaths of flower and leaves or coronets of pearls and gems to their hairstyles.
Parasols were used by Roman women as shade from the sun, as well as fans to keep cool and wave away flies. Slaves attended to a noblewoman in public, carrying her parasol and fanning her. Women often kept their palms cool and dry by holding balls of amber or glass.
Roman women were passionately fond of jewelry, and most of the precious stones we have today - except for diamonds - could be found in the jewelry box of a woman of wealth. Pearls were a particular favorite in Hadrian's time, as well as necklaces with beads and pendants made of glass.
Entertainment and leisure
No one did games quite like the Romans. Roman men were trained to be extremely competitive, and the Romans required a lot of excitement in order to be thrilled. Though the Romans enjoyed the pleasure of a relaxed dinner or an afternoon at the baths, it was the games and spectacles that truly drew the crowds.
In Roman times, men practiced riding, fencing, wrestling, throwing discus, and swimming. Hunting and fishing were also popular past times. There were no social amusements like dances or parties that both men and women took part in together, nor did women join in the outdoor sports of men. The sports men played together included foot racing, jumping, archery, wrestling and boxing. They did play ball games as well, which chiefly consisted of rounds of throwing and catching, including a game where a player threw the ball as high as he could and tried to catch it before it hit the ground.
The Romans were very fond of games of chance, but gambling laws forbade a lot of popular games from being played. Such laws were hard to enforce, however, and large sums were won and lost at secret gambling resorts and private houses. During Saturnalia in December, gambling was unrestricted. Playing for high stakes was one of the greatest attractions at men's dinners, and the most common form of gambling was the Roman form of "heads or tails," in which coins were tossed and players bet on the outcome. In another game, players guessed whether the number of counters held by another was odd or even. Then he in turn held counters for his opponent to guess. The stake was usually the contents of the hand, but side bets were not unusual.
Some games were played with knucklebones (tali) and dice. Knucklebones of sheep and goats and imitations of them in ivory, bronze, and stone were used by men in gambling. Children played a game with the tali in which they threw them into the air and caught as many as they could on the back of one hand. In gambling, four tali were used at once, thrown either from a hand or from a dicebox. The side on which a bone rested was counted, not the side which came up. Thirty-five different throws were counted, each of which had its individual name and value. Four aces were the lowest throw, while the highest occurred when all the tali lay differently. It was this throw that designated the master of the revels at a drinking party.
The Romans also had dice made of ivory, stone, or close-grained wood. Each side was marked with dots, from one to six in number, just like modern dice. Three dice were thrown at one time from a dicebox. In this game, the side of the die that came up was counted. The highest throw was three sixes, the lowest three ones. In ordinary gambling the aim of every player was to throw a higher number than his opponent. Dice games were also played on boards with counters, somewhat like backgammon, in which skill was united with chance.
Entertaining the Roman people was difficult and expensive, for only highly exciting sights appealed to them. Romans enjoyed watching elaborate shows that involved danger to life or limb of the participants. For this reason, races and gladiatorial combats were more popular than plays. Dramatic performances consisted of comedies, tragedies, farces, and pantomimes. The latter two, though chiefly used as interludes and after-pieces, were by far the most popular with the general public and outlives other kinds of drama. Tragedies never appealed strongly to Romans, and only the liveliest comedies gained their favor. Since Roman theaters had no lighting, plays were presented only in the daytime, usually in the morning. The usual comedy must have required about two hours for its performance, including music between scenes.
There were no commercial theaters and plays were presented in public only when games, public or private, were given. All plays were supervised by state officials, who contracted for the production of a play with a famous actor, usually with a troupe of capable actors, all slaves.
The games in the circus were the oldest of the great free shows at Rome and were always the most popular. The word circus simply means "ring"; ludi circenses were, therefore, shows given in a ring. There were different kids of shows, but chariot races were the most popular. For these races the first and only requirement was a long and level piece of ground. Such a place was the valley between the Aventine and Palantine Hills, where circuses were held since ancient times. This remained the circus, even after others had been built.
The seats around the arena of the circus were made of marble. At the foot of the tiers of seats a marble platform ran along both sides and the curved end of the circus. On this podium were boxes for the more important magistrates and officials of Rome. Seats were assigned to various classes and organizations, separating the women from the men and the poor from the wealthy.
Because of the Romans' love of excitement, gladiatorial shows were immensely popular. Combat games were so popular that politicians used them to gain popular favor by competing with their rivals over the frequency of shows and number of combatants.
During the Empire the number of gladiators exhibited was almost beyond belief. Originally gladiators were prisoners of war, but by Hadrian's time many slaves willingly became professional fighters and were trained at gladiator schools for combat. Another source of combatants came from the jails, but as demand grew for more and more gladiators, men accused of even the most petty crimes were sent into the arena. Christians were also sent into the arena, though Hadrian was not in favor of Christian persecution during the early part of his reign and it became a less common practice.
Roman Religion
Emperor Hadrian reigned during an interesting time in Rome's social history. Belief in the Graeco-Roman gods was on a a steady decline and the number of Christians was beginning to rise. By 324, Christianity would be the official religion of Rome. During Hadrian's time, it was still the general belief that Christians were barbarians, and Christian families usually kept their religion secret in order to save themselves from persecution. Though Hadrian did not support Christian and Jewish persecution, the tide of public opinion was still turned against people of these religious groups and they were murdered or drafted into slavery in large numbers.
In the Imperial Age, the genius of the emperor was worshiped, but worship of the emperor himself was not permitted during his lifetime. After an emperor's death he would be deified and worshipped among the gods of Rome. To this practice Christians were opposed, an act regarded as treason by many Romans.
There were many days of celebration and festivals in the Roman calendar, owning to the many gods Romans paid respect to and the fact that Romans often adopted the mythologies and deities of lands they conquered. One of the most popular holidays was Saturnalia, which occurred from December 17-23. All businesses were suspended during this time and even slaves given temporary freedom. Gifts were given during this time, especially gifts of candles and handmade tokens. It was a time of general celebration, culminating in the untying of ropes that bound the statue of Saturn outside his temple. A list of many more Roman festivals and more information on them can be found here.
The most important god in Roman mythology was the king god Jupiter. A close parallel to the Greek god Zeus, Jupiter had the power to throw lightning bolts from the sky. Along with his wife Juno, Jupiter was one of the most popular Roman gods. Another god that was popular at the time of Hadrian was Isis and other Egyptian gods, as the Romans were drawn to the "mystery" religions. Bacchus, the god of wine and revelry, was certainly an extremely fun god to pay respects to, and Romans did it often. There was also a belief in spirits of the hearth and household spirits, as well as in the power of one's deceased ancestors. A list of all the Roman deities can be found here.
Roman Society
Just as in our times, the Romans had complex social customs and superstitions that governed their everyday lives. There were three main categories in the Roman social hierarchy: senators, provincials, and slaves. After the emperor, Roman senators and aristocrats were at the top of the food chain. The Senate included consuls, magistrates, and governors. These senators were all either appointed by Hadrian or had inherited their position, and they lived the life. Below them were the equites, equestrians or knights, who were wealthy citizens holding senior positions in the army and in civil administration. The equites could become senators, but the born aristocrats usually were quite bitter towards these "up-and-comers." After the equites were the plebeians, which made up a vast majority of the Roman population. Slaves held the lowest position, having very little rights, even under Hadrian's humanistic rule.
An important industry in Rome was the carrying of letters and messages, done by professional couriers. There was no public postal service, but at Villa Adriana there were special messengers who delivered letters. In a day these slaves covered up to 26 miles on foot and 50 miles in carts. For long distances, especially overseas, sending letters by special messengers was so expensive that except for very urgent messages, letters were sent by traders and travelers going in the desired direction.
Certain conditions had to be met before a legal marriage could be contracted by Roman citizens. First, the consent of both bride and groom had to be given, or that of the fathers, and neither father could refuse his consent without showing valid reason. Both parties had to be adult, and there could be no marriages between children. According to various laws, citizens aged 12-14 were old enough for marriage. Both man and woman had to be unmarried, as polygamy was never sanctioned in Rome. They could not be closely related - marriage was absolutely forbidden between parent and child, sibling, and cousin not removed to the fourth degree. If all requirements were fulfilled and both parties were Roman citizens, the marriage was legal and any children they had possessed all civil rights. If one of the parties was a Roman citizen and the other a plebian with the title of jus conubii (basically like having a Green Card,) the marriage was still legal, but the children took the civil standing of their father, whichever that might be. If either party was without jus conubii, the union was legal but an irregular marriage, and the children were never legal citizens.
A formal betrothal before marriage was considered good form but not legally necessary. In betrothal the girl was promised in solemn form by her father or guardian. If the groom was independent, the promise was given to him directly, otherwise it was made to the head of his house. The word for engagement was spondeo and the maiden was called sponsa, which meant promised. She had a legal right to cancel the promise at any time. A man almost always presented gifts to his betrothed, including a ring that was worn on the third finger of the left hand because in Roman times it was believed that a nerve ran directly from the third finger of the left hand to the heart.
It was a point of honor with the Romans for the bride to bring her husband a dowry. If dependent, this was furnished by the head of her house; if independent, she supplied her own dowry. According to the laws in Hadrian's time, half of the bride's possessions would become her husband's after marriage, though she was still allowed to keep others - including property and slaves - as her personal belongings.
There were really no legal forms necessary for the solemnization of a Roman marriage. The only thing required was consent, and this consent had to be shown by some act of personal union between the parties; that is, marriage could not be entered into by letter, messenger, or proxy. Such a public act was the joining of hands in the presence of witnesses, the bride's letting herself be escorted to her husband's house, or a signing of a marriage contract. Escorting a bride to her new home was never omitted when those concerned had any social standing.
With her marriage to a citizen of Rome, a Roman woman reached a position never attained by the women of any other nation in the ancient world. Nowhere else were women held in such high respect, nowhere else did they exert so strong an influence in the home and in society. A Roman matron was not kept at home in a special women's apartments as women were in Greece; the whole house was open to her and she was absolute mistress.
Roman taboos regarding sex were in many ways a lot like our own. Acts of incest, bestiality, and necrophilia horrified Romans the same as they disgust modern people. Other sexual taboos had a lot to do with status and the belief that a respectable Roman man would never allow himself to be penetrated. For this reason, homosexuality was frowned upon, even while pederasty was common practice.
Because of the belief that a man had to have the dominant role during sex, administering oral sex on male or female partners was considered shameful, though there was no shame for a Roman man to receive oral sex. Assuming the receptive role in anal sex was also unacceptable, and a man - anyone over the age of eighteen or nineteen - who was suspected of allowing himself to be penetrated would be the object of much ridicule and scorn. For this reason, the appearance of hair on a boy's body was considered highly unattractive, and when a boy began to grow hair on his face and body he was considered too manly for receptive sex.
Sex with slaves and pages was commonplace and not at all frowned upon, even for married men, as long as the man could never be accused of lowering his station. For women, however, adultery was a criminal offense, and to have sex with a slave was one of the most shameful things she could do. Women were expected to keep their honor and remain respectable, even if her husband was making the rounds with everyone else.
Prostitution was also commonplace in Rome, and having sex with a prostitute was not considered shameful either. Being a prostitute was not so easily accepted. Sometimes prostitutes were slaves sold by their masters from a brothel, but there were also freeman prostitutes who kept their earnings for themselves. Many prostitutes wore tokens to mark their status, especially earrings or special brooches, so that they could advertise their services in public.
When traveling by water, Romans used sailing vessels and occasionally canal boats. There were a few transportation companies, with boats running on a regular schedule and carrying passengers at a fixed price. A traveler by sea who could not afford to buy or charter a ship for his exclusive use often had to wait at a port until he found one sailing in the desired direction, and then make arrangements for his passage. Boats were small and uncomfortable, and lack of a compass compelled sailors to follow the coast. This often increased the distance and danger of the journey, so in bad weather few ships sailed.
Romans who journeyed by land had a lot of advantages over Romans at sea. Roman vehicles were very advanced, and their roads surpassed any that have been built until recent times. Hadrian preferred to travel by land, and for this reason his entourage always traveled by land as well. For traveling short distances sedan chairs or litters carried by slaves were used, and for longer trips many Romans used carriages drawn by horses or mules. There were both open and covered wagons, some with two wheels and some with four, drawn by one horse or by two or more. It was possible to rent these outside the gates of all important towns. In 124, because of the emperor's preference for riding on horseback, advanced saddles and harnesses for horses were being made and were used by all of the royal entourage.
There were numerous inns, lodging-houses, and restaurants in the cities and towns of Italy. At inns people found food and beds, and their horses were cared for under the same roof in unpleasant proximity. All such inns were of poor quality and were avoided by respectable travelers, as inns and innkeepers had most unsavory reputations. Wealthy people either had places of their own on roads that they used frequently, or they stayed with friends or hospites, whom they were ready to entertain in their turn and were sure to have everywhere.
The Romans believed that the soul could only find rest when the body had been duly laid in a grave; until this was done, the spirit haunted its home, unhappy itself and bringing unhappiness to others. Observance of appropriate funeral rites was the solemn religious duty of surviving members of the family. If a body was lost at sea or for any other reason unrecovered, burial ceremonies were still performed and an empty tomb was sometimes used. Well-to-do Romans had burial places built for them, the most imposing of which happens to be Emperor Hadrian's final resting place, Castel Sant'Angelo. Roman citizens not rich enough to erect their own tombs could buy space for a few urns in tombs built by speculators.