(no subject)
exams give me the shits.
biology should die.
psychology gives me a headache.
why did i take these subjects? i suck.
every living cell synthesises large molecules (biomacromolecules) which are needed for building body parts of organisms maintaining biochemical processes needed to keep the organisms alive such as communication transforming energy and regulating genetic information structure and properties depends on biomacromolecule's function or vice versa subunits for carbohydrates are simple sugars (monosaccharides) example for carbohydrates being starch subunits for proteins are amino acids example for a protein being enzymes subunits for lipids are triglycerides and fatty acid chains example for lipid is triacylglycerol subunit for nucleic acid is a nucleotide example of nucleic acid is DNA autotrophs can synthesise their own organic compounds by using the inorganic compounds on the environment chemotrophs or chemosynthetic autotrophs are autotrophs who can make their organic compounds using chemical processes other than photosynthesis such as oxidation of chemical compounds heterotrophs are depent on other organisms for organic compounds they ingest organic compounds and these are broken down into simpler substances and synthesised into the organic compounds that the organism needs biomacromolecules are made by the bonding of monomers or subunits in process called polymerisation condensation polymerisation is when the hydroxyl group of one monomer reacts with the hydrogen atom of another monomor which forms a water molecule to reverse effects perform hydrolysis lipids are not polymers carbohydrates are the most common compounds of living things they are classified according to the complexity of their linkages between monomers examples of monosaccharides are ribose and glucose example of disaccharide is sucrose which is a glucose and fructose monomer combined and examples of polysachharides are starch and cellulose carbohydrates are vital as a source of energy and for structural components they can bond with other groups or atoms to form more complex molecules for example a glycoprotein is the comination of carbohydrate and protein groups lipids can be waxes terpenes fats oils phospholipids glycolipids and steroids their three main functions are energy storage as they have twice as much energy as carbohydrates they make up the structural components of membranes and they have specific biological functions such as the transmission of chemical signals within and between molecules waxes and cutins form a waterproof protective coating for the organism terpenes are constituents of essential oils they have characteristic flavours and odours some plants use terpenes to attract insects others use them to keep them away fats help animals get through hard times for example whales and seals store fat droplets in their adipose tissue underneath the skin to insulate from heat loss oils store energy and matter for the growth of new plants lipids are classified according to their solubility which is determined by shape and nature of intramolecular bonding triglycerides are what fats and oils are typically composed of triglycerides have a glycerol backbone and three fatty acid chains fats are found in animals they are saturated meaning that they have single bonds between their carbon atoms and they have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms attached to their carbon atoms they are solid because the single bonds mean that the chains are fairly straight and are closely packed together oils are unsaturated and are found in plants they have double bonds and the bends and kinks mean that they can not lie closely together three lipids are found in membranes phospholipids have a phosphate group which replaces the third fatty acid chain the fatty acid tails are hydrophilic while the phosphate group is hydrophobic which makes them spontaneously become lipid bilayers glycolipids have a carbohydrate group which replaces the third fatty acid chain glycolipids are vital for communication and are specialised to detect and bind with signalling molecules cholesterols belong to the steroid group they are found in cell membranes except for the inner membrane of the mitochondria and chloroplasts and are also found in the myelin sheath of nerve cells they maintain the rigidity of membranes and are the starting point for the synthesis of steroid hormones such as bile salts what a cell is or does depends on its proteins a proteome is the whole set of proteins produced by a cell and proteomics is the study of proteomes proteins are made up of large and complex molecules and perhaps are the most important molecules for all living organisms because of their contribution to the building of parts and structures and as enzymes control the chemical reactions required to maintain life processes there are different types of proteins which have different functions motility proteins allow the movement of cells and organelles an example is tubulin transport proteins carry molecules from one location to another or carry them across cell membranes an example is haemoglobin enzyme proteins such as catalyse catalyse biochemical processes support proteins like keratin provide strength support and protection they can be found in bones cartilage or tendons hormone proteins like insulin regulate bodily actiity they stimulate or inhibit and signal between different cell types immunoglobins such as antibodies help the body fight disease they recognise foreign substances or antigens neurotransmitters like endorphins signal between neurones proteins are diverse and this is due to the sequence of the twenty different amino acids while they are diverse the have a basic structure which is the bonding of amino acids which are twisted colded and folded plants can synthesise their own amino acids amino acids are small molecules they have a basic structure which consists of a central carbon atom attached to this is a hydrogen atom a carboxyl acid group COOH an amine group NH2 and an R group the R group is what distinguishes one amino acid from another the amino acids undergo four different levels to get the overall shape of the protein in the primary structure of the protein the DNA determines the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide amino acids bond via condensation polymerisation and the bonds between adjacent amino acids are called peptide bonds in the secondary structure various parts of the polypeptide chain undergo folding and coiling due to the hydrogen bonds between amino acids tight coils are alpha helices an example is alpha keratin found in wool they are elastic beta pleated sheets are not elastic and are the folds and an example is fibroin found in silk the parts that have not been folded or coiled are called random loops random loops and beta pleated sheets make up the basis of the enzymes active site because they are less rigid than alpha helices in the tertiary structure according to like attracts like hydrophobic R groups attract other hydrophobic R groups and hydrophilic R groups attract other hydrophilic R groups the interaction between R groups results in more twisting and coiling and folding which makes up the proteins functional shape or conformation the interaction also results in hydrogen bonds ionic bonds and disulfide bridges between adjacent amino acids proteins with the same sequence of amino acids result in the same shape but the alteration of even one amino acid changes the shape of the protein and makes it unable to function because the tertiary structure determines the function of the protein or its biological functionality some proteins form long closely packed fibres which are insoluble in water and result in the structural component of cells most proteins however are globular shaped and result in a variety of functional tasks apart from the misreading of DNA information proteins can have their nature altered in other ways like if they are exposed to high temperatures extremely salty solutions or acidic or alkaline conditions they become denatured and lose their shape if the change is minor they will regain their shape but if the change is major they cannot nucleic acids are long molecules composed of three distinct chemical parts nucleic acids store information in a chemical code that directs the cells machinery to produce proteins they are every organisms genetic material they are commonly recognised by the letters DNA and RNA and are large and complex molecules DNA is made up of two strands of nucleotides which wind around each other to form a double helix RNA is made up of a single chain and thus forms only a single strand nucleotides are the subunits for nucleic acids and are composed of three distinct chemical components five carbon sugar (in RNA this is ribose and in DNA this is deoxyribose) a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base the sugar molecule of one nucleotide and phosphate group of another bind together so that the nitrogenous base is left sticking out of the sugar molecule this nitrogenous base will pair with the nitrogenous base of the opposite strand adenine and thymine pair up and guanine and cytosine pair up the ribose sugar of RNA has one less oxygen atom than the deoxyribose sugar of the DNA uracil also replaces thymine in RNA
biology should die.
psychology gives me a headache.
why did i take these subjects? i suck.
every living cell synthesises large molecules (biomacromolecules) which are needed for building body parts of organisms maintaining biochemical processes needed to keep the organisms alive such as communication transforming energy and regulating genetic information structure and properties depends on biomacromolecule's function or vice versa subunits for carbohydrates are simple sugars (monosaccharides) example for carbohydrates being starch subunits for proteins are amino acids example for a protein being enzymes subunits for lipids are triglycerides and fatty acid chains example for lipid is triacylglycerol subunit for nucleic acid is a nucleotide example of nucleic acid is DNA autotrophs can synthesise their own organic compounds by using the inorganic compounds on the environment chemotrophs or chemosynthetic autotrophs are autotrophs who can make their organic compounds using chemical processes other than photosynthesis such as oxidation of chemical compounds heterotrophs are depent on other organisms for organic compounds they ingest organic compounds and these are broken down into simpler substances and synthesised into the organic compounds that the organism needs biomacromolecules are made by the bonding of monomers or subunits in process called polymerisation condensation polymerisation is when the hydroxyl group of one monomer reacts with the hydrogen atom of another monomor which forms a water molecule to reverse effects perform hydrolysis lipids are not polymers carbohydrates are the most common compounds of living things they are classified according to the complexity of their linkages between monomers examples of monosaccharides are ribose and glucose example of disaccharide is sucrose which is a glucose and fructose monomer combined and examples of polysachharides are starch and cellulose carbohydrates are vital as a source of energy and for structural components they can bond with other groups or atoms to form more complex molecules for example a glycoprotein is the comination of carbohydrate and protein groups lipids can be waxes terpenes fats oils phospholipids glycolipids and steroids their three main functions are energy storage as they have twice as much energy as carbohydrates they make up the structural components of membranes and they have specific biological functions such as the transmission of chemical signals within and between molecules waxes and cutins form a waterproof protective coating for the organism terpenes are constituents of essential oils they have characteristic flavours and odours some plants use terpenes to attract insects others use them to keep them away fats help animals get through hard times for example whales and seals store fat droplets in their adipose tissue underneath the skin to insulate from heat loss oils store energy and matter for the growth of new plants lipids are classified according to their solubility which is determined by shape and nature of intramolecular bonding triglycerides are what fats and oils are typically composed of triglycerides have a glycerol backbone and three fatty acid chains fats are found in animals they are saturated meaning that they have single bonds between their carbon atoms and they have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms attached to their carbon atoms they are solid because the single bonds mean that the chains are fairly straight and are closely packed together oils are unsaturated and are found in plants they have double bonds and the bends and kinks mean that they can not lie closely together three lipids are found in membranes phospholipids have a phosphate group which replaces the third fatty acid chain the fatty acid tails are hydrophilic while the phosphate group is hydrophobic which makes them spontaneously become lipid bilayers glycolipids have a carbohydrate group which replaces the third fatty acid chain glycolipids are vital for communication and are specialised to detect and bind with signalling molecules cholesterols belong to the steroid group they are found in cell membranes except for the inner membrane of the mitochondria and chloroplasts and are also found in the myelin sheath of nerve cells they maintain the rigidity of membranes and are the starting point for the synthesis of steroid hormones such as bile salts what a cell is or does depends on its proteins a proteome is the whole set of proteins produced by a cell and proteomics is the study of proteomes proteins are made up of large and complex molecules and perhaps are the most important molecules for all living organisms because of their contribution to the building of parts and structures and as enzymes control the chemical reactions required to maintain life processes there are different types of proteins which have different functions motility proteins allow the movement of cells and organelles an example is tubulin transport proteins carry molecules from one location to another or carry them across cell membranes an example is haemoglobin enzyme proteins such as catalyse catalyse biochemical processes support proteins like keratin provide strength support and protection they can be found in bones cartilage or tendons hormone proteins like insulin regulate bodily actiity they stimulate or inhibit and signal between different cell types immunoglobins such as antibodies help the body fight disease they recognise foreign substances or antigens neurotransmitters like endorphins signal between neurones proteins are diverse and this is due to the sequence of the twenty different amino acids while they are diverse the have a basic structure which is the bonding of amino acids which are twisted colded and folded plants can synthesise their own amino acids amino acids are small molecules they have a basic structure which consists of a central carbon atom attached to this is a hydrogen atom a carboxyl acid group COOH an amine group NH2 and an R group the R group is what distinguishes one amino acid from another the amino acids undergo four different levels to get the overall shape of the protein in the primary structure of the protein the DNA determines the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide amino acids bond via condensation polymerisation and the bonds between adjacent amino acids are called peptide bonds in the secondary structure various parts of the polypeptide chain undergo folding and coiling due to the hydrogen bonds between amino acids tight coils are alpha helices an example is alpha keratin found in wool they are elastic beta pleated sheets are not elastic and are the folds and an example is fibroin found in silk the parts that have not been folded or coiled are called random loops random loops and beta pleated sheets make up the basis of the enzymes active site because they are less rigid than alpha helices in the tertiary structure according to like attracts like hydrophobic R groups attract other hydrophobic R groups and hydrophilic R groups attract other hydrophilic R groups the interaction between R groups results in more twisting and coiling and folding which makes up the proteins functional shape or conformation the interaction also results in hydrogen bonds ionic bonds and disulfide bridges between adjacent amino acids proteins with the same sequence of amino acids result in the same shape but the alteration of even one amino acid changes the shape of the protein and makes it unable to function because the tertiary structure determines the function of the protein or its biological functionality some proteins form long closely packed fibres which are insoluble in water and result in the structural component of cells most proteins however are globular shaped and result in a variety of functional tasks apart from the misreading of DNA information proteins can have their nature altered in other ways like if they are exposed to high temperatures extremely salty solutions or acidic or alkaline conditions they become denatured and lose their shape if the change is minor they will regain their shape but if the change is major they cannot nucleic acids are long molecules composed of three distinct chemical parts nucleic acids store information in a chemical code that directs the cells machinery to produce proteins they are every organisms genetic material they are commonly recognised by the letters DNA and RNA and are large and complex molecules DNA is made up of two strands of nucleotides which wind around each other to form a double helix RNA is made up of a single chain and thus forms only a single strand nucleotides are the subunits for nucleic acids and are composed of three distinct chemical components five carbon sugar (in RNA this is ribose and in DNA this is deoxyribose) a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base the sugar molecule of one nucleotide and phosphate group of another bind together so that the nitrogenous base is left sticking out of the sugar molecule this nitrogenous base will pair with the nitrogenous base of the opposite strand adenine and thymine pair up and guanine and cytosine pair up the ribose sugar of RNA has one less oxygen atom than the deoxyribose sugar of the DNA uracil also replaces thymine in RNA