(no subject)
Following are Rory's thoughts on...
Writing.
(which will be first. Afterward this will follow what of the lectures I've felt like copying down for the last two days.)
Comments always welcome and appreciated.
Any questions?
Good.
Tips on writing--get a good guide to writing history. (A Pocket Guide to Writing history by Rampolla works well if you can find it). Writing is scary--if you are not scared by it, you are doing it wrong. You are committing to something--and if you know your audience, lucky you. Rory is the audience. If anyone tries to have simply make things up for that Mick…it will not go well. Show discernment. Tell your readers what the paper is about--you are going from a state of not-writing, to writing--your life is changing gear. This damned well should be appalling. The opening paragraph has to frame the rest of your paper and make your reader want to continue reading. There are always ways of avoiding a dreadful first paragraph. One way is writing the question at the top of the work. DO THIS. It will keep you good and thinking about answering the question--this is not show and tell or a thematic thing showing how fucking brilliant you are--just answer the question. 16th century Irish history--Rory enjoys it, but understands that you might not. The important thing is to answer the question.
Do NOT open with a global statement! Example ‘Throughout history…man has had noses, human kind has used their olfactory senses for their own uses” or ‘People have always wondered about…” or “From the beginning of time…man has taken great delectation in footwear (Gandhi didn‘t)”--the most important adjective to avoid is ‘INTERESTING’--you are lying if you find something interesting! You are bored shitless. Perhaps it is notable, worth noting. The sentences that follow have to be so general as to be meaningless. Meaningless propositions are unnecessary and will make you look dull. And you do not want to look dull. Rory is not a sadist. But this shit is important to get you thinking. Include your thesis in the first paragraph. Return and rewrite your first paragraph after you have finished the paper--write your first paragraph last--as many writers (including Rory’s father, a journalist) do. At the end, it helps to create a myth of coherence so that it looks like everything is wonderful and fucking sophisticated. There you go. It is craftsmanship--put in the barebones and then add everything else later. Write paragraphs that are clear and connected. If the reader (Rory) cannot follow the point of a paragraph, he will not be able to follow your reasoning and your paper will be weak and unconvincing. All things need to be building blocks for other things--broadening things out or narrowing them down. Make clear connections between ideas. Think about how things are related. Transitional words and phrases matter, as do prepositions. Juxtaposing things is important to do in a proper fashion.
To compare: also, Similarly, etc. To contrast: on the one/other. Cause and effect: consequently, as a result of, because, thus, since, therefore. You know this. Note--do not say: “on the one hand” if you only in fact have one hand. You need to have another hand. Likewise, if you say ‘although’, it needs to actually present contrary conditions and such. To intensify--HVIII liked scholarship, furthermore he was interested in the theological theories of his day. Cause and effect---HVIII and More’s relationship deteriorated--and consequently More found himself a head shorter. Conclusion should remind the reader of the thesis--do not end it with a new idea or fact. If you find yourself still pondering stuff, for the love of all, stop it. Reiterate the most important points. And end things.
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Also: just because people are dead does not mean they are stupid! You will be dead! I will be dead, tragically, a loss to the arts. And we would not want people calling us stupid simply because we’ve lived out our time on this earth, would we now? No. We fucking would not. So do others that same courtesy and analyze without criticizing. Historians try to understand people in their own context rather than judging them in the present.
And Fucking TENSE. USE THE PAST TENSE. When writing history, anyway.
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Gerald Fitzgerald ends up in exile in Italy, where he hangs out (as the 11th Earl of Kildare) until he returns later on.
Today we will be talking about something. The Pope invited the Irish-Catholic hierarchy to Rome, where BXVII had what was effectively a session of them being pieces of shit. He let each of them speak (for seven minutes, in public confession) on how they could have done more to preserve the welfare of children from child-fucking priests in Ireland. And he then instructed them to perform public penance for Lent. Ireland is seen as a Catholic country--but Irish Catholicism is the most narrow, reductionist, disappointing, constricting, and etc form of Catholicism out there--and yet it influences Catholicism wherever English is spoke. There are wonderful Irish Catholics, but there seems to be some strange thing in the Irish psyche that turns good things into atrocious things.
First and foremost…so you won’t be surprised and confused--last week we talked about the 1540s. This week we will press the rewind button (do they still have those, or do you just have chips in your heads)--and move back to Lord Leonard Grey in around 1536. Today we will talk about religion in Ireland. There is something very strange, anomalous about Ireland in this way, (aside from Irish Catholicism being hideous)--that strange thing that when the Reformation hits Europe, Ireland is, for the first 200 years, the only country in Europe which ends up taking a religious allegiance that is different from the religious allegiance of its monarch. This is a strange thing. After the 30 Years War things change a bit, different protestant monarchs rule over different denominations, but at the time we are talking about, Ireland is the only country that ends up on a different religious page to its monarch. And to a certain degree--(not because Micks are the most Catholic people in the world, or the most devoted to Mary, or anything like that)--this was more of an accident. You get some detractors who say the reformation did not fail in Ireland until the 19th century--the Irish were so stupid that they did not know what they believed but it was great--and decided they were Catholic later on. Most people are theologically stupid now, unfortunately. The beginning of this story is much more accidental--going down to what happens at the very beginning, the way in which the whole enterprise is begun. And it is a story not of conspiracy but of cock-ups, total mistakes. We have Irish chieftains denouncing their allegiance to the Roman pontiffs with Surrender and Regrant--saying HVIII is the head of the Church--and how do you get from that to a situation where Ireland is renowned as a Catholic country. In many respects the whole plan becomes to turn Ireland into a Protestant country is compromised from the beginning. Not among the Gaelic Irish, but amongst the most culturally English in Ireland, who generally love to follow the legal and political mores of the English--the Anglo-Irish, the Palesmen. It is amongst them that there is a problem. Henry VIII had this very big idea of himself as an emperor--including the fact that he wore a closed (and thereby Imperial) crown. An open crown is the sign of a king--a closed, an emperor. King of England, France, and Ireland. Defender of the Faith and Supreme Head of the Churches of England and Ireland. Here we have a man who sees himself as Supreme Head of the CoE and CoI. This is all backed up by the music of William Cornish--an amazing choral composer--this is actually 15th century stuff--that somehow made it through the destruction of choir-books under Edward VI. We will need to talk about ecclesiology--to do with the structure or beliefs that people have about the structure of a church. What we are talking about is bishops, that sort of thing. It is worth remembering at this time (and keep this in mind before writing it in an exam) when Henry VIII breaks from Rome, that is what he does--his church is structured the same, just that he basically becomes pope. This means he is the highest authority on earth within that Church. He still has bishops, theologically he, although he changes his mind back and forth, flirting with Protestantism, he is effectively tremendously Catholic. And his Church looks Catholic. If you went into Mass during the time of Henry VIII, you would come across something that was said in Latin and would look exactly like a Mass in France or Tuscany. So Henry VIII’s church is effectively shifting--in its external expression it looks exactly the same. So if you are a local English person and you walk into a church, nothing will seem to have changed. There would be more differences between residence-hall masses and standard masses than there were between those in England and those on the Continent. The sacramental theology (how many sacraments there are and such) has changed, but…meh. For the most part things are the same. In 1534 Charles V’s ambassador to England, Chapuys (pronounced Chap-oys), stated that if the Pope were to send an emissary to Ireland ‘some commotion might be created, since all the Irish consider themselves subjects of the Holy See.” Henry had reason to be paranoid,--he would have been seen (like, technically, the Eastern Orthodox Church) as a schismatic. EOC more or less holds many of the beliefs of Catholicism (and the only differences are really in church-governance). It is worth noting the thing that gave the English sovereignty over Ireland had been a papal grant (Laudabiliter) to Henry II--this is what Charles V’s ambassador is talking about here. What Chapuys is relaying is effectively that because the pope gave to the English kings the sovereignty to Ireland, they could also take it back. Theoretically. Of course in reality that was not always the case. You cannot always get things back from your ex--but it is this phenomenon is still mentioned. And Charles V is told that he might get some leverage out of this situation, this reality.
Ireland and the break with Rome. In England, the legislation that effected the break with rome and the royal supremacy had been introduced by acts of parliament. In May 1536, and Irish parliament met and had no problem accepting the bills that recognized Henry as Supreme Head of the CoI, prohibited appeals to Rome (in Canon Law disputes), and the collecting of papal taxes (Peter‘s Pence--one of the major sticking points of Laudabiliter was that the Kings of England could collect papal taxes (for the pope, of course). At this stage there seems to have been an attempt to integrate the churches of England and Ireland. This legislation that would have effectively made Canterbury Ireland’s metropolitan see was repudiated. So far, so good, things worked just as well as in England, with parliament pretty much going along with everything. The seven proctors from the Irish clergy, who met in a third house of parliament (Irish parliament had three houses--commons, lords, and clergy (of whom there were only seven)), refused their assent to the bills. They did not, however, have a veto, so things continued on. Henry later cemented things with the 1541 Act of Kingly Title. So parliament gives Henry the rubber-stamp he needs to break with Rome. It is to be remembered that what they are doing is effectively creating a church that looks the exact same in the everyday goings on as the Roman church--only with HVIII at the head of things. In September of 1536, when parliament met again, the country’s unease with the ecclesiastical legislation became more apparent. This reflected the fact that Grey and the crown had reneged on its promises of mercy towards the Geraldines and the house of Kildare. The House of Commons started resisting the crown’s attempts to legislate at all, effectively filibustering. Rejecting proposed trade legislation and increased crown taxation. It also repudiated legislation designed to suppress some monasteries. Patrick Barnwell, a Palesman and the king’s own Irish serjeant at law, argued that the king could spiritually renew a monastery, but jurisdictionally, he would not touch the spiritual foundation’s property--it was a private gift from one person to another. The clergy argued that the consent of the proctors was required also. A fourth session from October to December did the work the other sessions could not. Papal jurisdiction was abolished. The clerical proctors were denied rights in parliament. The Royal Supremacy in Ireland. The Act of Supremacy made Henry VIII official head of the CoI--beginning with that HVIII is already head of the CoE--and should be head of the CoI as Ireland belongs justly and rightly to him. Now only those bishops who were in the 1536 parliament were actually enjoined to accept the act in the first instance. It is the Act of Supremacy in England which gets people who want to be martyrs to start coming out of the woodwork--a dispute about the pope being supreme legal head of the Church. Already we see that maybe on the basis of political feasibility, there seems to be less of a zeal to track opponents down and force them to conform to Henry VIII’s claim to be supreme head of the CoI. Leonard Grey is probably regretting reneging on his promise to the Kildares. We are beginning to see a pattern that less zeal is put into enforcing conformity than you get in England. In England you get the Carthusian martyrs, Thomas More, Bishop John Fisher--it is at this point that they are all throwing their heads onto chopping blocks. Not so in Ireland. The other thing that we see is the ‘forasmuch as this land of Ireland is depending and belonging justly and rightfully to the imperial crown of England’ is pretty much deemed to be by the right of Henry VIII alone--not due to anything granted to his ancestors or anything like that. Henry VIII had a very ulcerated leg at this stage due to a fall off a horse, and having been rather enormous in size he grew even more so--you could probably fit a few people inside one of his later suits of armor that he wore during campaigns in France in the 1540s. Again it is worth noting that Henry VIII--people think of him as a lust-filled, sex-obsessed fucker--the problem with this is that he is incredible cerebral--obsessed with theology and thinks that if he thinks things out he can come up with wonderful new ideas. Be careful dating a philosopher or theologian, they will do whatever they like to you and be able to justify it. Seriously--Rory has had bad experiences with this. They are so bloody righteous. Henry VII has a direct line to God. George Browne was made archbishop of Dublin. This is important--the CoI needed bishops to run it--Anglicanism in this country is called episcopalianism because there are bishops. The ab of Dublin is the most important appointment in Ireland. George Browne had been the prior of the Augustinian order in London and had overseen its dissolution. He had been on board with the royal supremacy project and had been the first to announce that Henry had married Anne Boleyn. He had pretty much been an enforcer for Henry, going around and imposing an oath accompanying the act of supremacy in friaries throughout England.. The act of succession pretty much states that ‘Henry loves Anne Boleyn, and their children will be heirs the crown.’ George Browne was not particularly successful enforcing the new Church settlement in Dublin. 1536 was a difficult year to begin. His clergy mostly continued invoking the pope’s name in the canon of the mass and his two cathedral chapters in Christ Church and St. Patrick’s (there were two cathedrals in Dublin) either openly defied him or took the oath in order to get him to just fuck off. A few other bishops in Ireland conformed straight away. Bishop Stables of Meath, Abp Cromer of Armagh, Abp Butler of Cashel, Bp Baron of Ossory, and 3 absentee English appointees, Down and Connor, Elphin and Mayo. The ice falling is only from Mossad agents trying to kill Rory. Rory prefers Latin masses--pretty much because he does not really like priests trying to inflict their personalities on him. He does not, however, like slow singers. And will mock them. The canon of the mass is basically that point where various things are prayed for ‘Benny the pope, Brad the bishop, and Ziggy.’--logically, in a church that has broken from Rome, you take this moment to pray for the king. You do not recognize the jurisdiction of the Pope. This is a minor thing which you need to be good in Latin to figure out--but it is a major symbolic difference. The clergy in the Pale and most of Ireland are still praying for the pope. Awkward. George Browne is trying with his two cathedral chapters (communities of clergy based around a cathedral) to lockstep--singing the office (Lauds, Vespers, Complines, etc), sleeping--the Psalms are basically Israeli war songs. Monks are violent people--they will deck one another for singing off-key. And so we have Pope Paul III, continuing throughout all of this to appoint his own cadidates for bishop in Ireland; both those held by schismatic bishops and to those that lay vacant. All while Henry appointed his own bishops. Of the 41 appointments the papacy made between 1534 and 1553, only 9 submitted to Henry VIII. So the majority of the Church in Ireland is run by bishops that still profess allegiance to the popes. One reason is that--with democracy, less change occurs over time--the great thing about monarchy is that monarchs die. So things could change. People look at Henry VIII and think--he will die and things will go back to the way they were. This is actually not what happens with Edward VI, a religious loon, and his highly protestant regents. The secular arm in Ireland, Lord Leonard Grey at this time, was unwilling to enforce the disciplinary measures that Archbishop Browne and Bp Staples desired him to take--eg against James Humphrey, a canon of St. Patrick’s who refused to publicly say prayers that extolled the royal supremacy. In effect LG was refusing to rock the boat for religious reasons (probably realizing he had really fucked up by betraying the Kildares). The Form of Beads was the name of the prayers supporting Royal Supremacy. And JH pretty much just refused to say the prayers in front George Browne--pretty much having choir block out his voice as he just mouths random words. If you cannot get the break from Rome to work effectively in English-Ireland, where the hell will you get it to work?
Browne to Cromwell, 8th January 1538. ‘Neither by gentle exhortation, instruction, oaths, nor threats, can I persuade any, either religious or secular, to preach the word of god or recognize Henry.’--He also complained about Humphrey--who had the choir sing to block out the Form of Beads when it should have been said. Leonard Grey frees Humphrey after Browne has him locked up. In 1539 Henry VIII began to pursue a doctrinally conservative approach--the legislative result of this was the Act of Six Articles--extolling the real presence, private masses (said for the repose of the dead, the living, etc), auricular confession--and declared that clerical marriage was forbidden and all vows of chastity already made had to be observed (this mattered in Ireland)--see, all these things in Henry’s break from Rome were initially ambiguous, in 1539 you get an explicit line, and the line is that things are the same as in the Catholic Church. Clerical marriage being forbidden is problematic for one person in particular (many people, actually) George Browne--who has gotten married. Very soon after his arrival in Ireland he married Elizabeth Miagh, a local woman. The Act of Six Articles required conformity within a certain amount of time--and Browne had not been able to conform within a particular time quickly enough. And the penalties were very steep (we are talking execution). In order to save his career he had to receive the cooperation of the very cannons of his cathedral who he had been waging war against (his wife was probably 14.). The canons say that they will agree, if he does exactly what they want. He casts off his wife and married her to his servant Robert Bathe and set up a trust to finance the education of his three sons; this trust was administered by the canons of St. Patrick, including James Humphrey. It is uncertain whether Browne still banged her after this point. But he probably did. And then Cromwell falls in September of 1540. At the end of this debacle, the Lord Deputy did not want to enforce the break with Rome, and you have a clergyman who does want to and is openly defied--but he is then compromised in such a way that he cannot even try to enforce conformity. You have a raft of legislation which says HVIII is the head of the CoI--but nobody is willing to enforce it. So you have the undermining of the idea that you have a Church of Ireland that will be autonomous from Rome.
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2/23/2010. Rory shouts out the window at a late student. Informing him that he is in fact late. This class amuses me. This might be a short class. Thank the gods. The submission date for this is Thursday of next week. Freshmen should submit either the essay or the draft of the essay by Tuesday so that midterm grades can be submitted. For everybody Rory wants the essay by Thursday of next week. About four pages, 1.5 spaced. Tights are not pants. Tights are not pants. Citation system is noted on the syllabus. Everything is due March 4th. National Band Day. Now, today is going to be about history and about writing history in a way some of you might find insulting. He looks directly at Dustin and myself. Today we will be talking about the money, what happened to the money. People say we have a peace process, isn’t it wonderful--of course there has to be either consensus or some grand conspiracy theory. Rory does not understand conspiracy theories. Consensus theories are much more interesting, why people gang up or what they get out of things due to being part of a consensus, and today we will be talking about what binds this all together. Example---the academic community has a very high opinion of itself. You should look at reviews of books--basically they indicate that we are all two-year olds who nit pick and fling shit at one another. Academics are entirely subjective. Reality intersects with image, determining the day to day working out of a community which sees itself as high minded. So. Corruption.
Stewardship of the Finances. Annual crown revenue between the years of 1541 and 1547 was approximately five million dollars per annum. This was up from below $2 million per annum in the late 1530s. Before surrender and regrant was inacted, all this great and enlightened use of reason and such in Ireland things were lower--as could be expected. So they are doing well, S&RG seems to be paying quite fine as long as people are politically willing to overlook certain things. It looks good. But this was much less than might have been expected. Between the revenue coming in from both Kildare lands and monastic lands they should have amassed more than $8 million. This is all in modern monetary value. Had they rented out monastic lands they would have made at least ten million a year on rents. The political arrangement in the first instance just from the money that could have secured from rents has cost the crown about equal to the amount it has made. Because of the below sale price of lands the crown was losing the equivalent of one million a year on the lands it leased out. In other cases monastic lands had been sold outright at bargain basement prices by ASL--in real terms, an incalculable loss. Between 1541-47 approximately $7 million worth of crown rent on leases went uncollected. Those who has received monastic lands were playing the system with the connivance of crown officers. So the crown had these vast tracts of land in England and Ireland, a massive gain with all the lands monasteries held, but then…they don’t have it, people simply buy it off of lower crown officers. ASL does not really do a very good job (as in no job) of collecting rents. Those who receive monastic lands either to own or to rent, they are simply not paying the rent. So on every single level the crown is losing out on the basis of a political consensus--being: giving out of monastic lands for paying very small (or no) amount of rents--it is really just handing out of favors. So you are talking about the loss of revenue to the crown here, which is really incalculable--but on top of this there is a gain in the accounts for the crown, just not as much as there should be. And people are quite willing to say they are not fans of the pope as long as it gets them land. Looking back on this people pretty much start grabbing for land. The equivalent would be if everyone in this class got the dissolved lands of the Catholic Church in America in exchange for turning this paper in on time. The change that is occurring is known to have occurred because Henry wants to marry another woman, and then another, and etc--and then he will die, and after he does, everyone will go back to the pope and be able to keep their lands (because how is the pope going to be able to get them back)--the offer is simply one you cannot resist. Monastic lands for NOTHING. Win-win situation. This is not a privatization of a telephone company or something like that. This is land. Where did all the monks go? Some would have gone back into communities. Abbots were pretty much pensioned off--in England especially--you have people like Thomas Cusack pursuing this strategy in Ireland. Abbots know they are on the way out--they are not stupid, they know HVIII wants to dissolve monasteries, they know the crown knows exactly how much land and assets the monasteries have. Now, abbots can wait until monasteries are closed down--or you can call your brother, the Earl of Exwhyzeham. Offering to sell the monastery and simply get out that way. So things simply dissolve themselves and leave with the money. Some monasteries do this--the canny ones. A lot of them, if they want to pursue the religious life, will go back into the Anglican fold. Others just drift off. It is a very good question without a full answer. Given that people became monks in these days (not just because of a zeal for religion) in order to just have a square meal--it was a type of population control--either someone can hang around the house at home or the monastery can feed them--the same thing was done with daughters. Boom, nunnery. This was simply a subset of the community that was informed by their family that this is where they would end up. And there was also a lot of anti-monastic and anti-clerical rhetoric, stories, and anecdotes used to simply tarnish the ideas of the monastic orders in order to strip their assets. But there are some monasteries that are…better than others--some monks are philandering inept horndogs.
Those crown officers are in on the scam against the crown themselves. Take Sir Thomas Cusack, master of the rolls, ASL’s right hand man. He brought religious lands in perpetuity for $75,000--they were worth $98,000--and remember he does not have to pay rent, ever. And he can rent these out to people and make the money back quite well. The under-treasurer, vastly corrupt William Brabazon, was personally taking up vast tracts of monastic lands, without even an entry fine to the crown at really cheap prices. St. Leger himself acquired lands at massive discouts. He paid $1,500 per annum for the nunnery of Grane--it was worth at least $24,000 per annum.
The Butler Ascendancy. Bribery can only do so much. And there is a proverb that ‘Eaten bread is soon forgotten.’ It should not surprise us that Ireland returns to faction. The problem is that ASL has set up a new arrangement on the ashes of only one old faction. There is still the Butlers to deal with. Following the act of Kingly Title in 1541, once monastic lands had been distributed, domestic politics returned to factionalism. With Kildare fallen--St. Leger and James Butler (ninth earl of Ormond) had both conspired to destroy Leonard Grey, but this did not guarantee that they would get on well once St. Leger was Lord Deputy. One of the most telling phrases in the New Testament is ‘on that day, Herod and Pilate were made friends’--two men who hate each others guts were joined in common cause. Once the opportunism was slaked they returned to their corners. St. Leger proved to be independent--and he was trying to rehabilitate the Earls of Desmond (who did surrender and regrant--and are now in the same position with the crown as he is, annoying to someone who had been the crown‘s friend for so long)--Ormond resented this---and members of the Irish Council began to frustrate ASL’s policies, alleging corruption. Of course, they are right with their corruption charges, but it depends on how deeply imbued in the corruption they are themselves. Ormond actively and independently cultivated Henry VIII by furnishing an army for his French campaign of 1544. He also furnished a 2,000 strong army for his Scottish campaigns. Ormond suspected that St. Leger plotted to have him killed during this campaign. There is a letter from this period hinting at this--Ormond figures he will be killed in the heat of battle. Rory is just full of Bible analogies--David sending Bathsheba’s husband off to the front lines to get killed so that they can bang. This shows how much distrust there is in Ireland. By 1546 the old factional polarity had resumed. With Ormond and Asl denouncing each other. The king summoned them both to London--and in October 1547 after ASL had been vindicated--Ormond and 17 of his followers all died of food poisoning at the Bishop of Ely’s house in London. Did ASL do it? Maybe. This was slow food poisoning that lasted over five days. Not nice. We do know that later on, 1569, when a future lord deputy of Ireland, wants to appoint Warren St. Leger to a post--the then earl of Ormond says that that man’s father killed my father.
After St. Leger’s ‘victory’ a difficult situation develops in the Irish midlands (where the Butlers had been performing crowd control against the O’Connors. The Tenth earl of Ormond was Thomas Butler, a minor. O’Connor Faly and O’More, as well as O’Byrne, O’Toole, and MacMurrough got restive. In 1546 Brabazon, acting as Lord Justice, provoked an ongoing conflict with the O’Connors and O’Mores. The opening of this conflict is something that does not close for the rest of the period. And this demands that all those people who had been part of the S&RG deals--the sort of peaceful assumption that Ireland…would be peaceful, began to fall asunder. The midlands needed a military man. And that was not ASL. Also, Henry VIII died and was replaced by Edward VI. On January, 28th 1547 Henry died. And was succeeded by EdVI. The regime was meant to be run by a council of regents, but it was taken by Edward Seymour, a renowned military man, Edward’s uncle, the Duke of Somerset. He appointed Edward Bellingham, another martial man, as Lord Deputy. The previous June Bellingham had been appointed captain genetal of the army in Ireland. He left in December of 1549 and was replaced by ASL after a campaign in the midlands of the country. By the end of 1548 Bellingham had apprehended and executed Cahair Roe O’Connor. And, along with William Brabazon, he attempted to consolidate the crown’s control over the midlands by erecting a grid of garrisons/fortifications in the area. Fort Governor was set up at Dangan in the O’Connor territory and Fort Protector at Maryborough. Other garrisons were established at Leighlinbridge and on the border with the O’Neills at Newry. In May 1551, ASL was placed by a martial man, Sir James Croft who left again in December 1552--during his term the lands of disaffected O’Mores and O’Connors were confiscated with a view of settlement by more amenable people--the idea of a very small plantation in Ireland has been considered. Surrender and Regrant is still going on elsewhere--but the midlands has proven tough to deal with and is paying the price for it. The people who do well out of this colonization are other Gaelic-Irish figures and Palesmen, the O’Dempseys, good Gaelic-Irishmen, get land. Yay. Writing essays. First…the question:
“Surrender and regrant” was designed to provide a solution to a problem: what was that problem, and how did Surrender and Regrant solve it?
(Land-squatting and English law, basically, making things Kosher.)--As is understood, you should integrate things from the books for the class into the paper. And cite things.
Writing.
(which will be first. Afterward this will follow what of the lectures I've felt like copying down for the last two days.)
Comments always welcome and appreciated.
Any questions?
Good.
Tips on writing--get a good guide to writing history. (A Pocket Guide to Writing history by Rampolla works well if you can find it). Writing is scary--if you are not scared by it, you are doing it wrong. You are committing to something--and if you know your audience, lucky you. Rory is the audience. If anyone tries to have simply make things up for that Mick…it will not go well. Show discernment. Tell your readers what the paper is about--you are going from a state of not-writing, to writing--your life is changing gear. This damned well should be appalling. The opening paragraph has to frame the rest of your paper and make your reader want to continue reading. There are always ways of avoiding a dreadful first paragraph. One way is writing the question at the top of the work. DO THIS. It will keep you good and thinking about answering the question--this is not show and tell or a thematic thing showing how fucking brilliant you are--just answer the question. 16th century Irish history--Rory enjoys it, but understands that you might not. The important thing is to answer the question.
Do NOT open with a global statement! Example ‘Throughout history…man has had noses, human kind has used their olfactory senses for their own uses” or ‘People have always wondered about…” or “From the beginning of time…man has taken great delectation in footwear (Gandhi didn‘t)”--the most important adjective to avoid is ‘INTERESTING’--you are lying if you find something interesting! You are bored shitless. Perhaps it is notable, worth noting. The sentences that follow have to be so general as to be meaningless. Meaningless propositions are unnecessary and will make you look dull. And you do not want to look dull. Rory is not a sadist. But this shit is important to get you thinking. Include your thesis in the first paragraph. Return and rewrite your first paragraph after you have finished the paper--write your first paragraph last--as many writers (including Rory’s father, a journalist) do. At the end, it helps to create a myth of coherence so that it looks like everything is wonderful and fucking sophisticated. There you go. It is craftsmanship--put in the barebones and then add everything else later. Write paragraphs that are clear and connected. If the reader (Rory) cannot follow the point of a paragraph, he will not be able to follow your reasoning and your paper will be weak and unconvincing. All things need to be building blocks for other things--broadening things out or narrowing them down. Make clear connections between ideas. Think about how things are related. Transitional words and phrases matter, as do prepositions. Juxtaposing things is important to do in a proper fashion.
To compare: also, Similarly, etc. To contrast: on the one/other. Cause and effect: consequently, as a result of, because, thus, since, therefore. You know this. Note--do not say: “on the one hand” if you only in fact have one hand. You need to have another hand. Likewise, if you say ‘although’, it needs to actually present contrary conditions and such. To intensify--HVIII liked scholarship, furthermore he was interested in the theological theories of his day. Cause and effect---HVIII and More’s relationship deteriorated--and consequently More found himself a head shorter. Conclusion should remind the reader of the thesis--do not end it with a new idea or fact. If you find yourself still pondering stuff, for the love of all, stop it. Reiterate the most important points. And end things.
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Also: just because people are dead does not mean they are stupid! You will be dead! I will be dead, tragically, a loss to the arts. And we would not want people calling us stupid simply because we’ve lived out our time on this earth, would we now? No. We fucking would not. So do others that same courtesy and analyze without criticizing. Historians try to understand people in their own context rather than judging them in the present.
And Fucking TENSE. USE THE PAST TENSE. When writing history, anyway.
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Gerald Fitzgerald ends up in exile in Italy, where he hangs out (as the 11th Earl of Kildare) until he returns later on.
Today we will be talking about something. The Pope invited the Irish-Catholic hierarchy to Rome, where BXVII had what was effectively a session of them being pieces of shit. He let each of them speak (for seven minutes, in public confession) on how they could have done more to preserve the welfare of children from child-fucking priests in Ireland. And he then instructed them to perform public penance for Lent. Ireland is seen as a Catholic country--but Irish Catholicism is the most narrow, reductionist, disappointing, constricting, and etc form of Catholicism out there--and yet it influences Catholicism wherever English is spoke. There are wonderful Irish Catholics, but there seems to be some strange thing in the Irish psyche that turns good things into atrocious things.
First and foremost…so you won’t be surprised and confused--last week we talked about the 1540s. This week we will press the rewind button (do they still have those, or do you just have chips in your heads)--and move back to Lord Leonard Grey in around 1536. Today we will talk about religion in Ireland. There is something very strange, anomalous about Ireland in this way, (aside from Irish Catholicism being hideous)--that strange thing that when the Reformation hits Europe, Ireland is, for the first 200 years, the only country in Europe which ends up taking a religious allegiance that is different from the religious allegiance of its monarch. This is a strange thing. After the 30 Years War things change a bit, different protestant monarchs rule over different denominations, but at the time we are talking about, Ireland is the only country that ends up on a different religious page to its monarch. And to a certain degree--(not because Micks are the most Catholic people in the world, or the most devoted to Mary, or anything like that)--this was more of an accident. You get some detractors who say the reformation did not fail in Ireland until the 19th century--the Irish were so stupid that they did not know what they believed but it was great--and decided they were Catholic later on. Most people are theologically stupid now, unfortunately. The beginning of this story is much more accidental--going down to what happens at the very beginning, the way in which the whole enterprise is begun. And it is a story not of conspiracy but of cock-ups, total mistakes. We have Irish chieftains denouncing their allegiance to the Roman pontiffs with Surrender and Regrant--saying HVIII is the head of the Church--and how do you get from that to a situation where Ireland is renowned as a Catholic country. In many respects the whole plan becomes to turn Ireland into a Protestant country is compromised from the beginning. Not among the Gaelic Irish, but amongst the most culturally English in Ireland, who generally love to follow the legal and political mores of the English--the Anglo-Irish, the Palesmen. It is amongst them that there is a problem. Henry VIII had this very big idea of himself as an emperor--including the fact that he wore a closed (and thereby Imperial) crown. An open crown is the sign of a king--a closed, an emperor. King of England, France, and Ireland. Defender of the Faith and Supreme Head of the Churches of England and Ireland. Here we have a man who sees himself as Supreme Head of the CoE and CoI. This is all backed up by the music of William Cornish--an amazing choral composer--this is actually 15th century stuff--that somehow made it through the destruction of choir-books under Edward VI. We will need to talk about ecclesiology--to do with the structure or beliefs that people have about the structure of a church. What we are talking about is bishops, that sort of thing. It is worth remembering at this time (and keep this in mind before writing it in an exam) when Henry VIII breaks from Rome, that is what he does--his church is structured the same, just that he basically becomes pope. This means he is the highest authority on earth within that Church. He still has bishops, theologically he, although he changes his mind back and forth, flirting with Protestantism, he is effectively tremendously Catholic. And his Church looks Catholic. If you went into Mass during the time of Henry VIII, you would come across something that was said in Latin and would look exactly like a Mass in France or Tuscany. So Henry VIII’s church is effectively shifting--in its external expression it looks exactly the same. So if you are a local English person and you walk into a church, nothing will seem to have changed. There would be more differences between residence-hall masses and standard masses than there were between those in England and those on the Continent. The sacramental theology (how many sacraments there are and such) has changed, but…meh. For the most part things are the same. In 1534 Charles V’s ambassador to England, Chapuys (pronounced Chap-oys), stated that if the Pope were to send an emissary to Ireland ‘some commotion might be created, since all the Irish consider themselves subjects of the Holy See.” Henry had reason to be paranoid,--he would have been seen (like, technically, the Eastern Orthodox Church) as a schismatic. EOC more or less holds many of the beliefs of Catholicism (and the only differences are really in church-governance). It is worth noting the thing that gave the English sovereignty over Ireland had been a papal grant (Laudabiliter) to Henry II--this is what Charles V’s ambassador is talking about here. What Chapuys is relaying is effectively that because the pope gave to the English kings the sovereignty to Ireland, they could also take it back. Theoretically. Of course in reality that was not always the case. You cannot always get things back from your ex--but it is this phenomenon is still mentioned. And Charles V is told that he might get some leverage out of this situation, this reality.
Ireland and the break with Rome. In England, the legislation that effected the break with rome and the royal supremacy had been introduced by acts of parliament. In May 1536, and Irish parliament met and had no problem accepting the bills that recognized Henry as Supreme Head of the CoI, prohibited appeals to Rome (in Canon Law disputes), and the collecting of papal taxes (Peter‘s Pence--one of the major sticking points of Laudabiliter was that the Kings of England could collect papal taxes (for the pope, of course). At this stage there seems to have been an attempt to integrate the churches of England and Ireland. This legislation that would have effectively made Canterbury Ireland’s metropolitan see was repudiated. So far, so good, things worked just as well as in England, with parliament pretty much going along with everything. The seven proctors from the Irish clergy, who met in a third house of parliament (Irish parliament had three houses--commons, lords, and clergy (of whom there were only seven)), refused their assent to the bills. They did not, however, have a veto, so things continued on. Henry later cemented things with the 1541 Act of Kingly Title. So parliament gives Henry the rubber-stamp he needs to break with Rome. It is to be remembered that what they are doing is effectively creating a church that looks the exact same in the everyday goings on as the Roman church--only with HVIII at the head of things. In September of 1536, when parliament met again, the country’s unease with the ecclesiastical legislation became more apparent. This reflected the fact that Grey and the crown had reneged on its promises of mercy towards the Geraldines and the house of Kildare. The House of Commons started resisting the crown’s attempts to legislate at all, effectively filibustering. Rejecting proposed trade legislation and increased crown taxation. It also repudiated legislation designed to suppress some monasteries. Patrick Barnwell, a Palesman and the king’s own Irish serjeant at law, argued that the king could spiritually renew a monastery, but jurisdictionally, he would not touch the spiritual foundation’s property--it was a private gift from one person to another. The clergy argued that the consent of the proctors was required also. A fourth session from October to December did the work the other sessions could not. Papal jurisdiction was abolished. The clerical proctors were denied rights in parliament. The Royal Supremacy in Ireland. The Act of Supremacy made Henry VIII official head of the CoI--beginning with that HVIII is already head of the CoE--and should be head of the CoI as Ireland belongs justly and rightly to him. Now only those bishops who were in the 1536 parliament were actually enjoined to accept the act in the first instance. It is the Act of Supremacy in England which gets people who want to be martyrs to start coming out of the woodwork--a dispute about the pope being supreme legal head of the Church. Already we see that maybe on the basis of political feasibility, there seems to be less of a zeal to track opponents down and force them to conform to Henry VIII’s claim to be supreme head of the CoI. Leonard Grey is probably regretting reneging on his promise to the Kildares. We are beginning to see a pattern that less zeal is put into enforcing conformity than you get in England. In England you get the Carthusian martyrs, Thomas More, Bishop John Fisher--it is at this point that they are all throwing their heads onto chopping blocks. Not so in Ireland. The other thing that we see is the ‘forasmuch as this land of Ireland is depending and belonging justly and rightfully to the imperial crown of England’ is pretty much deemed to be by the right of Henry VIII alone--not due to anything granted to his ancestors or anything like that. Henry VIII had a very ulcerated leg at this stage due to a fall off a horse, and having been rather enormous in size he grew even more so--you could probably fit a few people inside one of his later suits of armor that he wore during campaigns in France in the 1540s. Again it is worth noting that Henry VIII--people think of him as a lust-filled, sex-obsessed fucker--the problem with this is that he is incredible cerebral--obsessed with theology and thinks that if he thinks things out he can come up with wonderful new ideas. Be careful dating a philosopher or theologian, they will do whatever they like to you and be able to justify it. Seriously--Rory has had bad experiences with this. They are so bloody righteous. Henry VII has a direct line to God. George Browne was made archbishop of Dublin. This is important--the CoI needed bishops to run it--Anglicanism in this country is called episcopalianism because there are bishops. The ab of Dublin is the most important appointment in Ireland. George Browne had been the prior of the Augustinian order in London and had overseen its dissolution. He had been on board with the royal supremacy project and had been the first to announce that Henry had married Anne Boleyn. He had pretty much been an enforcer for Henry, going around and imposing an oath accompanying the act of supremacy in friaries throughout England.. The act of succession pretty much states that ‘Henry loves Anne Boleyn, and their children will be heirs the crown.’ George Browne was not particularly successful enforcing the new Church settlement in Dublin. 1536 was a difficult year to begin. His clergy mostly continued invoking the pope’s name in the canon of the mass and his two cathedral chapters in Christ Church and St. Patrick’s (there were two cathedrals in Dublin) either openly defied him or took the oath in order to get him to just fuck off. A few other bishops in Ireland conformed straight away. Bishop Stables of Meath, Abp Cromer of Armagh, Abp Butler of Cashel, Bp Baron of Ossory, and 3 absentee English appointees, Down and Connor, Elphin and Mayo. The ice falling is only from Mossad agents trying to kill Rory. Rory prefers Latin masses--pretty much because he does not really like priests trying to inflict their personalities on him. He does not, however, like slow singers. And will mock them. The canon of the mass is basically that point where various things are prayed for ‘Benny the pope, Brad the bishop, and Ziggy.’--logically, in a church that has broken from Rome, you take this moment to pray for the king. You do not recognize the jurisdiction of the Pope. This is a minor thing which you need to be good in Latin to figure out--but it is a major symbolic difference. The clergy in the Pale and most of Ireland are still praying for the pope. Awkward. George Browne is trying with his two cathedral chapters (communities of clergy based around a cathedral) to lockstep--singing the office (Lauds, Vespers, Complines, etc), sleeping--the Psalms are basically Israeli war songs. Monks are violent people--they will deck one another for singing off-key. And so we have Pope Paul III, continuing throughout all of this to appoint his own cadidates for bishop in Ireland; both those held by schismatic bishops and to those that lay vacant. All while Henry appointed his own bishops. Of the 41 appointments the papacy made between 1534 and 1553, only 9 submitted to Henry VIII. So the majority of the Church in Ireland is run by bishops that still profess allegiance to the popes. One reason is that--with democracy, less change occurs over time--the great thing about monarchy is that monarchs die. So things could change. People look at Henry VIII and think--he will die and things will go back to the way they were. This is actually not what happens with Edward VI, a religious loon, and his highly protestant regents. The secular arm in Ireland, Lord Leonard Grey at this time, was unwilling to enforce the disciplinary measures that Archbishop Browne and Bp Staples desired him to take--eg against James Humphrey, a canon of St. Patrick’s who refused to publicly say prayers that extolled the royal supremacy. In effect LG was refusing to rock the boat for religious reasons (probably realizing he had really fucked up by betraying the Kildares). The Form of Beads was the name of the prayers supporting Royal Supremacy. And JH pretty much just refused to say the prayers in front George Browne--pretty much having choir block out his voice as he just mouths random words. If you cannot get the break from Rome to work effectively in English-Ireland, where the hell will you get it to work?
Browne to Cromwell, 8th January 1538. ‘Neither by gentle exhortation, instruction, oaths, nor threats, can I persuade any, either religious or secular, to preach the word of god or recognize Henry.’--He also complained about Humphrey--who had the choir sing to block out the Form of Beads when it should have been said. Leonard Grey frees Humphrey after Browne has him locked up. In 1539 Henry VIII began to pursue a doctrinally conservative approach--the legislative result of this was the Act of Six Articles--extolling the real presence, private masses (said for the repose of the dead, the living, etc), auricular confession--and declared that clerical marriage was forbidden and all vows of chastity already made had to be observed (this mattered in Ireland)--see, all these things in Henry’s break from Rome were initially ambiguous, in 1539 you get an explicit line, and the line is that things are the same as in the Catholic Church. Clerical marriage being forbidden is problematic for one person in particular (many people, actually) George Browne--who has gotten married. Very soon after his arrival in Ireland he married Elizabeth Miagh, a local woman. The Act of Six Articles required conformity within a certain amount of time--and Browne had not been able to conform within a particular time quickly enough. And the penalties were very steep (we are talking execution). In order to save his career he had to receive the cooperation of the very cannons of his cathedral who he had been waging war against (his wife was probably 14.). The canons say that they will agree, if he does exactly what they want. He casts off his wife and married her to his servant Robert Bathe and set up a trust to finance the education of his three sons; this trust was administered by the canons of St. Patrick, including James Humphrey. It is uncertain whether Browne still banged her after this point. But he probably did. And then Cromwell falls in September of 1540. At the end of this debacle, the Lord Deputy did not want to enforce the break with Rome, and you have a clergyman who does want to and is openly defied--but he is then compromised in such a way that he cannot even try to enforce conformity. You have a raft of legislation which says HVIII is the head of the CoI--but nobody is willing to enforce it. So you have the undermining of the idea that you have a Church of Ireland that will be autonomous from Rome.
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2/23/2010. Rory shouts out the window at a late student. Informing him that he is in fact late. This class amuses me. This might be a short class. Thank the gods. The submission date for this is Thursday of next week. Freshmen should submit either the essay or the draft of the essay by Tuesday so that midterm grades can be submitted. For everybody Rory wants the essay by Thursday of next week. About four pages, 1.5 spaced. Tights are not pants. Tights are not pants. Citation system is noted on the syllabus. Everything is due March 4th. National Band Day. Now, today is going to be about history and about writing history in a way some of you might find insulting. He looks directly at Dustin and myself. Today we will be talking about the money, what happened to the money. People say we have a peace process, isn’t it wonderful--of course there has to be either consensus or some grand conspiracy theory. Rory does not understand conspiracy theories. Consensus theories are much more interesting, why people gang up or what they get out of things due to being part of a consensus, and today we will be talking about what binds this all together. Example---the academic community has a very high opinion of itself. You should look at reviews of books--basically they indicate that we are all two-year olds who nit pick and fling shit at one another. Academics are entirely subjective. Reality intersects with image, determining the day to day working out of a community which sees itself as high minded. So. Corruption.
Stewardship of the Finances. Annual crown revenue between the years of 1541 and 1547 was approximately five million dollars per annum. This was up from below $2 million per annum in the late 1530s. Before surrender and regrant was inacted, all this great and enlightened use of reason and such in Ireland things were lower--as could be expected. So they are doing well, S&RG seems to be paying quite fine as long as people are politically willing to overlook certain things. It looks good. But this was much less than might have been expected. Between the revenue coming in from both Kildare lands and monastic lands they should have amassed more than $8 million. This is all in modern monetary value. Had they rented out monastic lands they would have made at least ten million a year on rents. The political arrangement in the first instance just from the money that could have secured from rents has cost the crown about equal to the amount it has made. Because of the below sale price of lands the crown was losing the equivalent of one million a year on the lands it leased out. In other cases monastic lands had been sold outright at bargain basement prices by ASL--in real terms, an incalculable loss. Between 1541-47 approximately $7 million worth of crown rent on leases went uncollected. Those who has received monastic lands were playing the system with the connivance of crown officers. So the crown had these vast tracts of land in England and Ireland, a massive gain with all the lands monasteries held, but then…they don’t have it, people simply buy it off of lower crown officers. ASL does not really do a very good job (as in no job) of collecting rents. Those who receive monastic lands either to own or to rent, they are simply not paying the rent. So on every single level the crown is losing out on the basis of a political consensus--being: giving out of monastic lands for paying very small (or no) amount of rents--it is really just handing out of favors. So you are talking about the loss of revenue to the crown here, which is really incalculable--but on top of this there is a gain in the accounts for the crown, just not as much as there should be. And people are quite willing to say they are not fans of the pope as long as it gets them land. Looking back on this people pretty much start grabbing for land. The equivalent would be if everyone in this class got the dissolved lands of the Catholic Church in America in exchange for turning this paper in on time. The change that is occurring is known to have occurred because Henry wants to marry another woman, and then another, and etc--and then he will die, and after he does, everyone will go back to the pope and be able to keep their lands (because how is the pope going to be able to get them back)--the offer is simply one you cannot resist. Monastic lands for NOTHING. Win-win situation. This is not a privatization of a telephone company or something like that. This is land. Where did all the monks go? Some would have gone back into communities. Abbots were pretty much pensioned off--in England especially--you have people like Thomas Cusack pursuing this strategy in Ireland. Abbots know they are on the way out--they are not stupid, they know HVIII wants to dissolve monasteries, they know the crown knows exactly how much land and assets the monasteries have. Now, abbots can wait until monasteries are closed down--or you can call your brother, the Earl of Exwhyzeham. Offering to sell the monastery and simply get out that way. So things simply dissolve themselves and leave with the money. Some monasteries do this--the canny ones. A lot of them, if they want to pursue the religious life, will go back into the Anglican fold. Others just drift off. It is a very good question without a full answer. Given that people became monks in these days (not just because of a zeal for religion) in order to just have a square meal--it was a type of population control--either someone can hang around the house at home or the monastery can feed them--the same thing was done with daughters. Boom, nunnery. This was simply a subset of the community that was informed by their family that this is where they would end up. And there was also a lot of anti-monastic and anti-clerical rhetoric, stories, and anecdotes used to simply tarnish the ideas of the monastic orders in order to strip their assets. But there are some monasteries that are…better than others--some monks are philandering inept horndogs.
Those crown officers are in on the scam against the crown themselves. Take Sir Thomas Cusack, master of the rolls, ASL’s right hand man. He brought religious lands in perpetuity for $75,000--they were worth $98,000--and remember he does not have to pay rent, ever. And he can rent these out to people and make the money back quite well. The under-treasurer, vastly corrupt William Brabazon, was personally taking up vast tracts of monastic lands, without even an entry fine to the crown at really cheap prices. St. Leger himself acquired lands at massive discouts. He paid $1,500 per annum for the nunnery of Grane--it was worth at least $24,000 per annum.
The Butler Ascendancy. Bribery can only do so much. And there is a proverb that ‘Eaten bread is soon forgotten.’ It should not surprise us that Ireland returns to faction. The problem is that ASL has set up a new arrangement on the ashes of only one old faction. There is still the Butlers to deal with. Following the act of Kingly Title in 1541, once monastic lands had been distributed, domestic politics returned to factionalism. With Kildare fallen--St. Leger and James Butler (ninth earl of Ormond) had both conspired to destroy Leonard Grey, but this did not guarantee that they would get on well once St. Leger was Lord Deputy. One of the most telling phrases in the New Testament is ‘on that day, Herod and Pilate were made friends’--two men who hate each others guts were joined in common cause. Once the opportunism was slaked they returned to their corners. St. Leger proved to be independent--and he was trying to rehabilitate the Earls of Desmond (who did surrender and regrant--and are now in the same position with the crown as he is, annoying to someone who had been the crown‘s friend for so long)--Ormond resented this---and members of the Irish Council began to frustrate ASL’s policies, alleging corruption. Of course, they are right with their corruption charges, but it depends on how deeply imbued in the corruption they are themselves. Ormond actively and independently cultivated Henry VIII by furnishing an army for his French campaign of 1544. He also furnished a 2,000 strong army for his Scottish campaigns. Ormond suspected that St. Leger plotted to have him killed during this campaign. There is a letter from this period hinting at this--Ormond figures he will be killed in the heat of battle. Rory is just full of Bible analogies--David sending Bathsheba’s husband off to the front lines to get killed so that they can bang. This shows how much distrust there is in Ireland. By 1546 the old factional polarity had resumed. With Ormond and Asl denouncing each other. The king summoned them both to London--and in October 1547 after ASL had been vindicated--Ormond and 17 of his followers all died of food poisoning at the Bishop of Ely’s house in London. Did ASL do it? Maybe. This was slow food poisoning that lasted over five days. Not nice. We do know that later on, 1569, when a future lord deputy of Ireland, wants to appoint Warren St. Leger to a post--the then earl of Ormond says that that man’s father killed my father.
After St. Leger’s ‘victory’ a difficult situation develops in the Irish midlands (where the Butlers had been performing crowd control against the O’Connors. The Tenth earl of Ormond was Thomas Butler, a minor. O’Connor Faly and O’More, as well as O’Byrne, O’Toole, and MacMurrough got restive. In 1546 Brabazon, acting as Lord Justice, provoked an ongoing conflict with the O’Connors and O’Mores. The opening of this conflict is something that does not close for the rest of the period. And this demands that all those people who had been part of the S&RG deals--the sort of peaceful assumption that Ireland…would be peaceful, began to fall asunder. The midlands needed a military man. And that was not ASL. Also, Henry VIII died and was replaced by Edward VI. On January, 28th 1547 Henry died. And was succeeded by EdVI. The regime was meant to be run by a council of regents, but it was taken by Edward Seymour, a renowned military man, Edward’s uncle, the Duke of Somerset. He appointed Edward Bellingham, another martial man, as Lord Deputy. The previous June Bellingham had been appointed captain genetal of the army in Ireland. He left in December of 1549 and was replaced by ASL after a campaign in the midlands of the country. By the end of 1548 Bellingham had apprehended and executed Cahair Roe O’Connor. And, along with William Brabazon, he attempted to consolidate the crown’s control over the midlands by erecting a grid of garrisons/fortifications in the area. Fort Governor was set up at Dangan in the O’Connor territory and Fort Protector at Maryborough. Other garrisons were established at Leighlinbridge and on the border with the O’Neills at Newry. In May 1551, ASL was placed by a martial man, Sir James Croft who left again in December 1552--during his term the lands of disaffected O’Mores and O’Connors were confiscated with a view of settlement by more amenable people--the idea of a very small plantation in Ireland has been considered. Surrender and Regrant is still going on elsewhere--but the midlands has proven tough to deal with and is paying the price for it. The people who do well out of this colonization are other Gaelic-Irish figures and Palesmen, the O’Dempseys, good Gaelic-Irishmen, get land. Yay. Writing essays. First…the question:
“Surrender and regrant” was designed to provide a solution to a problem: what was that problem, and how did Surrender and Regrant solve it?
(Land-squatting and English law, basically, making things Kosher.)--As is understood, you should integrate things from the books for the class into the paper. And cite things.