Fare thee well, Bess
March 24, 1603* - Queen Elizabeth I of England dies.
Her death set in motion a chain of events that led to the peaceful transfer of power from the House of Tudor to the House of Stuart.
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Robert Cecil, 2nd Baron Burghley, became the leader of Elizabeth's government in 1598. By now, it was becoming urgent that a successor for the monarch be named. Elizabeth's health was not good, but also not bad. Still, she was 63 years old and that was well beyond the normal lifespan of 40 years. She refused to name a successor.
There were any number of claimants to the throne. James VI of Scotland had the strongest case, but he was not the only one. James was the son of the great-grandson of Margaret Tudor, sister of King Henry VIII. Her marriage to James IV made her Queen of Scotland. Henry's line was dying with Elizabeth, so it was natural to turn to Margaret's line. Others could also claim descent fron Henry: Edward Seymour, 42-year-old Earl of Hertford and Lord Beauchamp of Hace, was a descendant of Mary Tudor, Henry VIII's and Margaret's younger sister. (Mary Tudor -> Lady Frances Brandon -> Lady Catherine Grey) Mary had briefly been Queen of France, but her second husband was Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. This put her offspring lower than the princes descended from Margaret. Another strong claimant was Anne Stanley, 23-year-old Countess of Castlehaven. (Mary Tudor -> Lady Eleanor Brandon -> Lady Margaret Clifford -> Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby) Henry VIII's will specified that the eldest children of Mary inherit the throne. Lady Jane Grey had indeed done so, but been deposed after four days by Mary I, Henry's eldest daughter. Jane was then beheaded. Had Henry's will been honored, this would have made Lady Stanley queen. Lady Anne's father died in 1594, and his brother, William Stanley, the 43-year-old 6th Earl of Derby, believed he was next in line rather than Lady Anne. There was even conceivably a challenge arising from the House of York, whom the Tudors had supplanted. Its claimant was George Hastings, 63-year-old 4th Earl of Huntingdon. There were at least six others, and a dozen more with tenuous claims.
To avoid accusations of treason, Cecil had to proceed in secret. Moreover, he was concerned that James might invade England upon Elizabeth's death in order to secure his claim to the throne. Cecil desperately wanted to avoid another civil war, and knew he had to work to secure James' claim before the queen's death.
Cecil met secretly with the ambassadors of Scotland in 1601, proposing communication in code with James. James agreed. James not only had a strong claim to the throne but a legal one: When Elizabeth had entered into an alliance with James in 1568, she had secretly pledged in writing not to hinder his claim to the throne so long as he did nothing prejudicial against her. James had spent the next 35 years quietly seeking support for his claim from Europe's other monarchs -- all of them Catholic. Although word of this sometimes reached Elizabeth, pissing her off to no end, James vehemently denied it.
Elizabeth patronized James endlessly, and sometimes delayed or even failed to pay the annual allowance required under the treaty of 1568. She regularly insulted his intelligence and judgment in letters, but what could James do? If he complained, she might name another successor. (At one point in 1597, James spoke in the Scots parliament complaining that the woman who murdered his mother was insulting him. It was intolerable! When Elizabeth wrote him a scathing letter in response, James prostrated himself and groveled in submission.)
Under Cecil's guidance, James VI now begin to take actions that would improve his position now -- before Elizabeth died. Cecil coached James to flatter Elizabeth over her beauty and desirability, and to delve endlessly into her activities. James asked Cecil to draft letters to the queen so that he could strike the right tone. Cecil eagerly did so.
It worked. Elizabeth was completely susceptible to flattery in these regards, and her letters to James are filled with appreciation for his comments and inquiries. She even made veiled suggestions that he succeed her. When Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, tried to rebel in 1601, Elizabeth learned that James had secretly supported him. Nevertheless, she chose to ignore James' culpability.
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A number of the queen's closest female friends died in the autumn and winter of 1602, and Elizabeth fell into a long depression. Despite this, the Christmas celebrations at court were some of the merriest in years, and very well-attended.
In early January, however, her appetite fell to almost nothing for five days, and she lost weight. On 21 January, she moved to Richmond, the warmest of her palaces. She began to suffer from insomnia, and would sleep for only a few hours during the day. She often sat up at night, weeping and moaning about Essex.
Concern about her health spread widely. Yet, when she received the Venetian ambassador in early February, he was astonished to find her in great health. Her memory was excellent, her comments incisive, and she proved witty enough to make everyone laugh heartily.
The death on 20 February 1603 of Catherine Carey, Countess of Nottingham, hit Elizabeth very badly. Lady Catherine had been with her since the first year of Elizabeth's reign and was her closest female friend. Elizabeth became so despondent that she could no longer function, and sat motionless in her private apartments for hours on end. She refused to undress or go to bed, and lay about for hours on cushions on the floor, staring at nothing, her finger in her mouth.
Elizabeth now began to suffer a series of minor ailments: Loss of appetite, swollen glands, incessant thirst. Her hands swelled so much that she had to have her coronation ring sawn off. None of these physical issues seemed serious at all, and yet she was in decline. It was clear that she had simply lost the will to live.
Elizabeth fell ill with a cold on 7 March, but recovered two days later. She subsequently complained of a fever in her chest, headaches, cold legs, a sore throat, and a dry mouth. At times she ate well, and then would go for several days without food. Her insomnia worsened. Although she had no cough, she would at times suddenly hack and spit up large amounts of phelgm. These attacks were so severe, ladies at the court feared she would burst a blood vessel and drown in blood.
She appeared to briefly recover on 14 March, but four days later her health and depression worsened significantly.
On 22 March, Cecil managed to get her to take to her bed, but it was clear she was dying. She no longer could speak, her depression was so severe. The Archbishop of Canterbury prayed with her on 23 March, and she was clearly aware of him and signalled her appreciation of his presence.
Elizabeth slipped into unconsciousness early in the evening of 23 March, and died between 2 and 3 AM on 24 March. A death mask was made, and the keys Elizabeth wore attached to her girdle removed and given to Cecil.
The cause of her death has been widely debated. One thing can be ruled out: Lead poisoning. Many sources claim her white lead-based makeup killed her, but in fact there is no evidence that she used lead-based makeup.
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Preparations were already under way for the succession even while Elizabeth lived. The Privy Council began to circulate the story (whether true or not) that Elizabeth had said "who should succeed me but a King?" during her illness -- implying that she favored James VI as successor. During the last weeks of her illness, Cecil had even drafted a proclamation announcing James' ascendance to the throne. (He sent it to James, who approved its wording.) Robert Carey, 1st Earl of Monmouth, established a series of post horses so he could ride as fast as possible to Edinburgh with news of Elizabeth's death. (He reached the king on the evening of 26 March.)
Cecil's proclamation that James VI was King of England was read in public at 10 AM on 24 March.
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Elizabeth had ordered that her body be wrapped in cere cloth, rather than embalmed. Cere was a wax-impregnated cloth commonly used for wrapping the dead. Those who provided the cloth shorted her on the amount delivered, keeping the profit for themselves.
For two days, Elizabeth's body lay in the queen's apartment. There were no guards, no watchful mourners. Servants and other common people had access to her corpse, touching it and pulling back the cloth to look at her face. Meanwhile, two woollen drapers procured an immense amount of black wool for mourning.
On 26 March, Elizabeth's body was covered in a large amount of spices to cover the smell of decay. Her corpse was wrapped in lace, and then encased in a mummiform lead coffin, as was the custom for monarchs. A wooden coffin made of inch-thick elm planks was made to surround the inner lead coffin. The lid of this outer coffin was another inch-thick plank of oak, with a simple moulding. The Tudor rose was deeply cut into the lid, and on either side were the initials "E" and "R". Below the rose was the date (1603). The coffin was fastened shut with gilt nails, and covered with a pall of purple velvet.
That night, Elizabeth's coffin was taken by torch-lit barge down the Thames, a distance of about 14 miles by water. Ladies-in-waiting accompanied the corpse, both on the funeral barge and on several other black-draped barges which accompanied it, while male members of court walked on foot.
Elizabeth lay in repose in the Drawing Room at the Palace of Whitehall. The floor of the room was covered in gold-colored cotton fabric, and the walls covered with black wool. A large canopy bed was moved into the Drawing Room and used as a catafalque. The bed and its canopy were covered with black velvet. A coverlet of gold velvet was then laid on the bed, and the coffin placed atop it. A purple pall then covered the coffin. Much of the rest of the palace at Whitehall was also decorated for mourning. Black satin covered every window, making the interior very gloomy. All rooms adjoining the Drawing Room had their walls draped in black wool as well. The palace chapel had its communion table, pulpit, and walls hung with black baize (a cloth similar to felt, but more durable).
Every hour of every day during Elizabeth's laying in repose, her ladies-in-waiting and male members of the nobility stood watch over the corpse. Each person spent only a few hours doing so, and at first hundreds of people kept watch. Over time, as more and more courtiers sought James' attention, the numbers dwindled.
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James I left Edinburgh on 4 April, stopping in Berwick, Withrington, Newcastle, Durham, York, Doncaster, Newark, Burley, Royston, and Theobalds. He deliberately took his time, because he wanted the grief over Elizabeth's death to pass so he could enter London to joy. He only gave the order for Elizabeth's funeral to proceed on 14 April.
Some time after this, James decided not to attend the funeral. In part, he did not want to attend the obsequies of the woman who had put his mother to death. But, in part, he wanted to observe the French custom where a monarch did not mourn. (The monarchy was always alive; it did not "die" when an individual died, because it was supposed to greater than any single person.) There was also the unseemliness of courtiers trying to curry favor with James. There were so many noblemen riding north to Scotland to flatter him and win posts that he'd been forced to close the border. He feared that they would do so at the funeral as well, creating a scene.
Once James had given the order for a funeral to proceed, things moved swiftly. More than 12,000 yards of black cotton cloth were secured and sent to the official mourners. All of them were to wear a black hood and black gown.
At Whitehall, a hearse was erected. This was an elaborate framework designed to carry the coffin, and to which memorial verses or epitaphs would be attached. The hearse itself was made of wood, wheeled, and covered completely in black baize. Elizabeth's coffin was briefly moved to an adjacent room while the bed was dismantled and the hearse put in its place.
Atop the hearse was an effigy in wood and wax of the late queen. This upright statue was made by John Colt for the sum of £10 (about £2,335 or $3,200 in 2021 currency). The head was of carved wood, over which wax has used to create the extremely life-like features. Colt also made wax hands for the effigy. Colt dressed the effigy in
chemise of silver thread taken from Elizabeth's own wardrobe, and then a corset. A kirtle (a one-piece dress with a low, rectangular cut bodice over the breasts) of gold cloth, also taken from Elizabeth's wardrobe, covered these.
Colt the covered the kirtle with bombast -- the padding used to structure clothing and create fashionable silhouettes in the 15th and 16th centuries. Even though it would not be seen, the bombast itself was covered in lace, and had all the thongs, stays, and hooks to which clothing would be attached. The queen's tailor, William Jones, made a crimson satin robe lined with white fustian to cover the bombast.
Over everything was placed Elizabeth's coronation robes. Jones made shoes of gold cloth for wooden feet, and a ruff of gold cloth for the nexk. Elizabeth's crimson velvet mantle lined with ermine, which she wore when attending Parliament, was placed at the effigy's feet. A gilt wooden orb and scepter were made by Colt, and held in the hands, and a Colt-made gilt-wood crown with painted jewels placed on the wig on the effigy's head.
Lady Arbella Stuart was asked to be chief mourner, but she declined. Elizabeth had refused to allow her to attend court, and now Stuart refused to be "made a spectacle". Helena Parr, Lady Marchioness of Northampton, was named chief mourner in her stead.
The hearse at Whitehall was dismantled two days before the funeral, and moved to Westminster Abbey.
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The funeral procession from Whitehall Palace to Westminster Abbey was spectacular. It didn't have far to go: Just five blocks south down Whitehall, then a left on Broad Sanctuary, and a block later they were at the abbey's west entrance. Along the route were stationed trumpeters, who played soft songs with heavy beats so that the marchers kept in step.
Bell ringers and knights-marshals cleared the way. Behind them were 260 poor women, four abreast, dressed in black gowns with black linen kerchiefs over their heads. Then came the queen's servants, lowest-ranking in front. Behind them were the servants of the courtiers and nobles. All servants wore the same black gown and black hood.
Next came two horses, riderless and draped in black satin. Behind them were the queen's heralds, whose banners depicted the queen's ancestry and the extent of her realm. Professional and trained members of the household and goverment came next, people like apothecaries, musicians, and clerks.
The coffin itself was preceded by the governors and judges of London, then the Archbishop of Canterbury, and then various male nobles. The coffin itself rested on a wheeled bier. The bier was pulled by six horses, each draped in black satin bearing the coat of arms of England and France. Six earls held a black velvet canopy over the bier. Six knights held the pall over the coffin. The bier was followed by the chief mourner, Master of Horse, Lord Admiral, and Lord Treasurer. An unknown number of footmen followed.
The remaining mourners now followed: 14 countesses, the Ladies of Honor from the court, then the remaining countesses, viscountesses, earl's daughters, and baronesses. The Maids of Honor of the Privy Chamber came last.
Sir Walter Raleigh led the Yeomen of the Guard, who lowered their halberds as a sign of sorrow. The guards were followed by two marquessses, 16 countesses, and 30 baronesses.
As the funeral procession reached the entrance to Westminster, it was greeted by the Children of the Chapel, singing funeral dirges.
The coffin was moved into the abbey by the footmen who had accompanied the bier. The walls of Westminster Abbey were hung with black baize. (Black baize was also hung on the walls and doors of the abbey stables, as abbey horses were used in the funeral procession.)
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The funeral was presided over by the Bishop of Chichester. Thomas Morely had composed music for the Church of England's service for burial of the dead about 1586, and this music was played as the mourners took their places inside the abbey. The Anglican funeral was (and remains) extremely simple. The officiant read three verses as the coffin was placed on the hearse. Psalms 39 and 90 were sung, and then 1 Corinthians 15 read. The officiant gave a short funeral oration. A collect was sung, and it was over.
At this point, all of Elizabeth's councillors and officers moved toward the coffin. Each had carried a white rod during the funeral procession, a symbol of their office. Now, each one broke his rod and put the pieces on the hearse -- a sign that their duty to her was over.
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Usually, a hearse and coffin would stay on display for a full month. Because Elizabeth was not embalmed, her internal organs began to putrify and the smell inside the abbey became noxious. On May 15, King James I ordered the coffin to be buried "without the usual delay".
Elizabeth's coffin was buried in the Lady Chapel of Westminster Abbey. Its temporary location was the vault of her grandfather, Henry VII, which was located beneath his funeral chancery monument. The hearse remained on display until May 28, when it was dismantled. Its decorations were distributed to members of the Royal College of Arms.
Since she died without a will, all of Elizabeth's goods went to James. She had millions of pounds worth of gold, jewels, plate, tapestries, gowns, and other goods. Her servants got nothing. Her debts remained unpaid, impoverishing thousands of people.
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James I now ordered the erection of a large monument to Elizabeth in the north aisle of the Lady Chapel. The spot was directly above the resting place of Queen Mary I, in the vault below. The tomb was designed and sculpted by Maximillian Colt, John Colt's brother. He used the funeral mask to carve her likeness. The marble came from the royal storehouses. It was colored by Nicholas Hilliard and gilded by John de Critz.
The monument was completed in 1606, and Elizabeth's coffin moved to the vault below it. Her coffin was placed atop that of Mary's. James ordered that an inscription be placed at the head of the tomb. It is in Latin: "Regno consortes & urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis".
This translates to "Consorts in realm and tomb, here we sleep, Elizabeth and Mary, sisters, in hope of resurrection".
* - Under the calendar then in use in England, the new year began on March 25. The Tudors would have said Elizabeth died on March 24, 1602.