Research Paper
Hello! This is my paper on Alexander that I was talking about. I'm sure you guys know a lot about him already, and this stuff will be especially repetitive probably, but read away if you wish. =] Maybe it will be interesting for you to see how I write for an actual class as opposed to creative writing. Thoughts, concerns, praises, enraged ranting at something I got wrong, all is welcome. =P
‘Alexander the Great’ is one of the most well-known names in the world. While scholars debate over many aspects of his life, from his sexuality to the very nature of his leadership (was he a fair man or insufferable tyrant?), there are still some facts that remain undeniably true. He possessed a remarkably intelligent military mind; because of this his campaigns were among the most successful in history. Alexander exposed a large number of cultures to one another that had previously shared little contact, thus vastly expanding both trade and Greek culture (this spread of Greek culture being known as Hellenism). His ambition knew no bounds, and the question arises of what, exactly, instilled this in him. A look into the life of Alexander before his time of war and conquering will greatly aid in answering this question, a look into his life before he was deemed to be great.
In order to understand how Alexander was able to begin his career as king with such speed, it is a good idea to examine the ever-changing world that he was to be born into - Macedon (Green 19). There is much unknown about the origins of the Macedonians (Reader 17). While they were just north of the Greeks, they did not seem to be accepted as part of Greece (17). Indeed, Greeks would sooner call them barbarians than brothers (17). In the time that preceded Alexander’s father, Philip, there was no sense of national unity among Macedonians. The north and the south were individualistic from one another and no city-states offered loyalty to each other (17).
Along with Macedon, it is particularly important to look at Philip’s legacy. Philip was not born into royalty (Green 19). Before Alexander and Philip there had been no tradition of obtaining royal status through lineal means (Reader 17). Macedon was broken up into city-states before Philip brought them together, making it an unimportant part of Greek (and world) history during those years (Green 21). Their armies also contributed to the nation’s unimportance, as unskilled and untrained as they were. Without unity or a functioning army Macedon acquired a long, violent history of disorganization and vicious plots for power (23). Many kings were assassinated shortly after they finally claimed the throne (23).
This is where Philip grew up. Philip had family members in high places but he was not a highly valued member in his adolescent years. This, however, would turn out to help him rather than hinder him. The Macedonian phalanx, an infantry group composed of highly skilled soldiers wielding sarissas, was a very effective war tool that was created by Philip’s elder brother, Alexander II (23/24). Philip learned war tactics when, at fifteen, he was sent as a hostage to Thebes (23). These were the lessons that held an impact on his and Alexander’s later fighting strategies (23). Upon his return to Macedon (from Thebes), Philip was named a governor by his other elder brother, Perdiccas (25). Combining them with his previous knowledge of the phalanx, he quickly set out to implement the war lessons he had learned (25). Once the troops were trained, Philip (still only a governor) took control of the other city-states of Macedon, one by one (26).
Philip came into power once his brother, Perdiccas, had died in battle (25). It was Philip’s right to claim the thrown, as he was recently named regent (19). Philip made it so that his heir - whoever it was - would have no trouble becoming king after him (Reader 17). He continued to have much military success. While Alexander accomplished great military feats, he could not have even begun his campaigns had Philip not made his initial contributions to Macedon already (17). Philip created the building blocks that Alexander was later able to vastly expand upon (17).
Alexander’s mother, Olympias, was the fourth of King Philip’s eventual accumulation of seven wives (Worthington 22). She was married to Philip before she turned eighteen (Green 28). While Olympias was young and beautiful, she was also a very strong force of nature and always knew exactly what she wanted (28). The activeness of her role in Alexander’s stepping into power is another debated topic, but it is clear that she strongly supported her son and very much intended for him to become king. Olympias encouraged in every way possible her son’s right to the throne (Cartledge 82).
It is said that Philip was fearful that he was too successful when he heard of his son’s birth. The news of Alexander’s birth was delivered to Philip simultaneously with two other announcements of good news - those being that his chosen horse had won a race and his general, Parmenio, had just experienced a major victory (Green 19). It was then an omen to be so prosperous, and it has even been suggested that Philip prayed to the gods for some small bad instances to occur to make up for the good ones (19).
Alexander’s childhood was like any other Macedonian boy when not taking his royalty into account. He had a younger full sister named Cleopatra; it is thought that he held much affection for her (Cartledge 84). He also had a brother (perhaps older) named Arrhidaeus (Worthington 22). Had it not been for his mental incapability, Arrhidaeus might have been the Macedonian heir of Philip rather than Alexander (22). During his childhood Alexander spent the majority of his time at the palace in Pella, where he was able to be with his mother and sister (Cartledge 84). Philip, however, was constantly away on military expeditions, causing a gap to grow between father and son (84). Nevertheless, Alexander did look up to his father very much and wanted to be just as, if not more, successful (84).
Alexander’s prowess was evident even as a boy. An example of this is how he attained one of his closest life-long companions, Bucephalus (Worthington 24). Bucephalus was an untamed horse and thought to be impossible to ride (even by Philip, who was refusing to pay thirteen talents [a substantial amount of money at the time]) (24). Alexander, around ten years old then, took matters into his own hands and - after urging Philip to allow it - went to the horse himself (24). Hiding the horse’s shadow from its own sight, Alexander was able to soothe the animal and ride it (24). Bucephalus was a loyal horse that saw Alexander through most of his military career (24). It was not until 326 BCE that Bucephalus finally died after the Battle of Hydaspes - just three years before Alexander’s own death (24). Alexander was very emotionally upset when Bucephalus finally died (Mossé 90). So beloved was Bucephalus that when he died Alexander named a town Bucephalus (in the Punjab) in his honor (Cartledge 83).
Physical fitness was something that Alexander kept up ever since childhood, along with other children (Worthington 23). He was taught by a family member on his mother’s side, Leonidas (23). He learned combat, horse riding, and how to push through strenuous journeys (23). Leonidas’s lessons showed Alexander to survive with the barest of necessities - these skills would become highly useful during his later campaigning throughout South East Asia (23). Lysimaclus of Arcamania was Alexander’s mental tutor (24). Alexander learned basic skills such as reading, writing, and music, all of which he enjoyed and excelled at (24/25). He played the lyre (a string instrument associated with ancient Greece) very well - at the age of ten Alexander was good enough to play for foreign visitors (25). He also adored Homer’s work, the Iliad, and its tales of his hero, Achilles (Reader 18). He loved it so much that a copy of it was always with him on his travels (a copy given to him by Aristotle); it even rested beneath his pillow as he slept (18). His other hero was Heracles (Worthington 27). Both he and Achilles were supposedly born of one god and one mortal (27). Alexander could allegedly trace his own lineage back to them (27). Faith in the gods and “heroic myths” were widely accepted as reality (Green 34). Without it (this acceptance), Alexander’s claims to kinship with both Heracles and Achilles would have been of little significance (34).
Until his adolescent years, Alexander followed the Macedonian tradition of receiving an education at home (Worthington 24). Aristotle was hired by Philip to teach Alexander when he turned fourteen (25). The Precinct of the Nymphs was located in Mieza and it was there that Alexander was Aristotle’s pupil rather than at Pella (it is thought that Philip wanted Alexander to be away from his mother’s influence) (25). Alexander developed a strong love for literature; even while he was campaigning he would send for more books when there were none to be found (25). Alexander studied under Aristotle for three years in the Gardens of Midas (26). It is likely that Aristotle introduced him to philosophy, rhetoric, zoology, medicine, and geometry (25). It would later show in Alexander’s campaigns that he truly enjoyed learning when he would have scientists study the new places he had found - things like botany, biology, zoology, meteorology, and even topography (25). Aristotle’s scientific influences remained with Alexander; he would often send new and interesting samples of plants back to Aristotle (Cartledge 84). Although Aristotle did leave behind lasting impressions, it was clear that Alexander was destined to be a man of action rather than words (84).
Alexander was a slave to his own passion and it showed in his unpredictable personality (Worthington 23). He was capable of keeping calm - but he was also known for his wild (and often violent) temper (23). This was partially due to his drinking habits which would later form. In Macedon, drinking contests were a common event in the court life (24). Growing up around it would have made Alexander accustomed to such an activity, one that he would eventually join (24).
Alexander made loyal friends of fellow students who would become valuable assets to his army while under the tutelage of Aristotle (Cartledge 84). Cretan Nearchus eventually became the Admiral of the Fleet in India (85). Harpalus would be made Treasurer of Alexander’s financial affairs for his growing nation (85). His nearest friend of all, though, was Hephaestion; to Alexander he was a loyal companion, a lover, a general, and was eventually second in command to the king (84). Their relationship was of great importance for Alexander but is often overlooked.
During the final two years before Alexander would become king, his relationship with his father altered dramatically (Worthington 27). These years helped greatly to supply the eventual reasons for Alexander pushing so far during his own campaigns (which was largely to outdo Philip) (27). Alexander’s limitless ambition was showing itself when he was only sixteen (26). Leaving home once more for military gain, Philip gave Alexander the responsibility of being regent of Macedon while he was gone (26). A revolt shortly arose (26). Rather than consulting Antipater (his elder and supposed advisor), Alexander took the army and simply ended it himself (26). Moreover, he started a new capital city called Alexandropolis (26). It is not known what was Philip’s response to this behavior (26). Certainly there must have been pride at his son’s accomplishment, for it was not long before Alexander was handed even more military responsibility (26). When Alexander was eighteen, Philip made him the commander of the Companion Cavalry (27). During the Battle of Chaeronea, Alexander was able to cut through Greek defenses and triumph over the Sacred Band (of the Theban army) (27). During battle, Alexander emulated his father’s courage and ferocity, never caring about his own physical well being (27). His father was a great military role model, but despite Philip’s military influence Alexander began to dislike him once he’d finally had his first experiences with battle (28). He feared that Philip would set too high a standard for Alexander to even hope to surpass when he would finally be given the chance to rule (28).
There was no other potential person to stand in the way of Alexander becoming king (after Philip) until he was nearly twenty years old (Cartledge 82). Then Philip married Cleopatra, the only full-blooded Macedonian of his seven wives (Worthington 28). This would usually not matter because of Alexander’s age, but the relationship between Alexander and Philip was gradually being more strained as it was (29). An example of this is when, at a party with much drinking, Attalus (Cleopatra’s guardian) made a comment of hoping for a “legitimate” Macedonian heir (29). Alexander, enraged, called upon Philip to chastise Attalus (29). Instead Philip nearly attacked Alexander before he “fell over a table in a drunken stupor” (29). Olympias quickly took Alexander to Epirus, where Alexander stayed until beckoned by Philip in a few months (29). Shortly after this incident, Alexander was once more angry at Philip for marrying off his half brother rather than him; as a warning against his insolence Philip sent four of Alexander’s closest friends into exile (Alexander later rewarded them all for their loyalty) (30).
Just before either father or son decided to do anything else extreme, Philip was assassinated at his daughter’s wedding (30). Alexander and Olympias were suspected of involvement but nothing could be proven (30). Alexander quickly took care of rivals for the throne and ceased all potential rebellion to ensure his new position as king (30). From there, he picked up where his father left off, and set forth to invade Persia (30).
He did not stop with Philip’s death and neither did his success. Alexander went on to conquer all of Persia, Egypt, and even a small part of India before heading back to the home that Alexander would not see again. Although there are many more details and stories of Alexander, it is clear from what has been said that Alexander was always destined for greatness.