Белые евреи

[tijd]

В июле 1937 газета Das Schwarze Korps, печатный орган СС, опубликовала статью "'Weisse Juden' in der Wissenschaf". Речь в ней шла о том, что необходимо не только уничтожить евреев, но и истребить "еврейский дух" в науке, привнесенный ублюдками вроде Альберта Эйнштейна. Под "белыми евреями" ('Weisse Juden') подлежащими истреблению имелся в виду в частности Вернер Гейзенберг. Статья была анонимной, но за ней стоял Йоханнес Штарк, нобелевский лауреат и убежденный нацист, который в это время пытался пробиться на роль фюрера немецкой физики.

Нападки помешали Гейзенбергу занять пост профессора и директора физического института в Мюнхена, освобожденный его научным руководителем Арнольдом Зоммерфельдом. В качестве издевательства пост достался лояльному инженеру Вильгельму Мюллеру, не имевшему ни одной публикации по физике. Гейзенберг обратился напрямую к главе СС Гиммлеру с просьбой очистить его от подозрений. Его дальнейшая работа над немецким проектом атомной бомбы неоднозначна, что художественно отражено в пьесе "Копенгаген" Майкла Фрейна.

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Heisenberg: And maybe I'm choosing something worse even than defeat. Because the bomb they're building is to be used on us. On the evening of Hiroshima Oppenheimer said it was his one regret. That they hadn't produced the bomb in time to use on Germany.
Bohr: He tormented himself afterwards.
Heisenberg: Afterwards, yes. At least we tormented ourselves a little beforehand. Did a single one of them stop to think, even for one brief moment, about what they were doing? Did Oppenheimer? Did Fermi, or Teller, or Szilard? Did Einstein, when he wrote to Roosevelt in 1939 and urged him to finance research on the bomb? Did you, when you escaped from Copenhagen two years later, and went to Los Alamos?
Bohr: My dear, good Heisenberg, we weren't supplying the bomb to Hitler!
Heisenberg: You weren't dropping it on Hitler, either. You were dropping it on anyone who was in reach. On old men and women in the street, on mothers and their children. And if you'd produced it in time they would have been my fellow-countrymen. My wife. My children. That was the intention. Yes?
Bohr: That was the intention.



Но вернемся в предвоенное время. В мае 1938 британский ведущий научный журнал Nature публикует заметку о статье про «белых евреев»: https://www.nature.com/articles/141778a0. До этого журнал опубликовал развернутую статью Штарка "The Pragmatic and the Dogmatic Spirit in Physics", в которой те же идеи высказывались достаточно открытым текстом. Согласно Штарку, игра с уравнениями в духе Эйнштейна - это гнилой (еврейский) «догматический» подход к физике, в то время как простые эксперименты - правильный (арийский) «прагматический» подход:

”I have taken the field against the dogmatic spirit in Germany because I have been able to observe repeatedly its crippling and damaging effect on the development of physical research in this country. In this conflict I have also directed my efforts against the damaging influence of Jews in German science, because I regard them as the chief exponents and propagandists of the dogmatic spirit." https://www.nature.com/articles/141770a0.pdf

Неудивительным образом те же идеи муссировались в СССР во время борьбы с «космополитизмом» и попытки разгрома советской теоретической физики, но к тому времени физикам пришел на помощь ореол создателей атомной бомбы https://puppet-djt.livejournal.com/171349.html?thread=660309#t660309



Статья Штарка публиковалась по приглашению сэра Ричарда Грегори, главного редактора журнала.

Several leading British scientists brought the article in Das Schwarze Korps and in particular Stark's remarks on "White Jews in Science" to the attention of the editor of Nature, who wrote Stark on 11 October that he hesitated to make any reference to this report without confirmation that it accurately represented Stark's considered opinion upon the subject of "White Jews." The scientific world, the Nature editor added, would be interested in knowing Stark's views on the "relation of a certain group of people to scientific progress." Stark was flattered by this request and immediately replied that he would be pleased to provide Nature with an article on the influence of Jews in German science. Nature responded quickly in turn and requested an article of 1,000 to 1,500 words on the subject of "Jewish influence on science in Germany or elsewhere." The editor assured Stark that he was completely independent of either Jewish or anti-Jewish influence, and only desired to promote international cooperation in pursuit of the principles of truth and the progress of natural knowledge. Nature may have chosen to contact Stark before publishing any criticism of the articles in Das Schwarze Korps because its editor feared that his journal might be banned in Germany. Indeed in late 1937 Nature was proscribed in German libraries after it had been attacked as an atrocity journal. Stark proceeded cautiously. After his manuscript was finished, he sent it first to a party comrade and high-ranking official in the Ministry of Propaganda for approval. Stark told him that he had been leading a tough and bitter struggle against the "Jewish spirit" in science. It was very important to Stark that Heisenberg, who he called the champion of Jewish influence, not be honored with a call to the university in Munich. This goal had been served by the article which appeared in Das Schwarze Korps and which had incited international Jewry against Stark even more than before. Jews and their comrades were now attacking Stark in Nature, a journal with a world-wide distribution. Fortunately, its editor had been decent enough to contact Stark. The enclosed article had been written with scientific objectivity and in Stark's own words was pitched to the Anglo-Saxon and "non-Aryan" psyche. Of course, Stark hastened to add, when he wrote other publications for Germans, he naturally was clearer and more concrete.
https://www.ptb.de/cms/fileadmin/internet/ueber_uns/geschichte_der_ptb/Die_PTR_im_dritten_Reich/The_Rise_and_fall_of_an_Aryan_Physicist.pdf

Реверансы в сторону нацистов не помогли - в конце 1937 журнал Nature был запрещен в Германии по указу министра образования. Сам Грегори не разделял нацистской идеологии и позже обрушился на нее с критикой в брошюре военного времени ”Science in Chains". Для разоблачения идей Штарка он приводил в пример «догматическую» физику не-еврея Максвелла, которая привела к открытию радиоволн https://www.fadedpage.com/showbook.php?pid=20221126



Для обращения к англоязычной аудитории, Штарк вместо "арийской расы" использовал выражение "нордическая раса" (Nordic race), популяризованное Мэдисоном Грантом. Несколько студентов Колумбийского университета в Нью-Йорке, обеспокоенные статьей в Nature, обратились к разоблачителю Гранта, антропологу Францу Боасу. 80-летний Боас помог им составить обращение к американским ученым с призывом объединиться против фашизма.

"In 1938 Nature published, as a deliberate provocation, an article by a virulent Nazi physicist on ‘German and Jewish Physics’, a bitter assault on Einstein.
Three of us, sitting in a cafeteria, decided we had to get something done about this. One of us was an anthropologist. He went to Franz Boas, who said O.K. and drew up a short statement. Then, in a very crazy caper, we got hold of the faculty lists of about 1200 universities, sent the statement out over Boas’s signature and produced 1500 names. We were just a gaggle of students, not knowing anything about anything, but we issued a press release with all the names and hit the front page of the New York Times.
So then Boas said, ‘We can’t leave it at this, can we?’ He got some money and organized the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom... One of its youngest members was a man named J. Robert Oppenheimer."
https://brill.com/view/title/24712

Не все ученые откликнулись, но под изначальной декларацией удалось собрать больше тысячи подписей.

The fascist position toward science and the racial theory were denounced today in a manifesto signed by 1,284 American scientists, including three Nobel prize winners, which summoned their colleagues to the defense of democracy to avoid the fate of scientists in totalitarian states.
The manifesto was made public by a committee of prominent scientists headed by Prof. Franz Boas, dean of American anthropologists, who said. “The present outrages in Germany have made it all the more necessary for American scientists to take a firm anti-fascist stand. We are sure that the great majority of German scientists and the German people as a whole abhor fascism. The thousands of teachers and scientists who have been exiled since Hitler came to power bear testimony to the incompatibility of Fascism and science.”
“Our manifesto,” Dr. Boas Added, “declares that we scientists have the moral obligation to educate the American people against all false and unscientific doctrines, such as the racial nonsense of the Nazis. The agents of fascism in this country are becoming more and more active, and we must join with all men of good will in defending democracy today if we are to avoid the fate of our colleagues in Germany, Austria and Italy. <...>
The three Nobel Prize winners signing the manifesto are prof. Urey, Columbia University chemist; Prof. Robert A. Millikan, California institute of technology physicist, and Dr. Irving Langmuir, chemist. The signers include 64 members of the National Academy of Sciences. <...>
“We firmly believe that in the present historical epoch democracy alone can preserve intellectual freedom. Any attack upon freedom of thought in one sphere, even as non-political a sphere as theoretical physics, is in effect an attack on democracy itself. When men like James Franck, Albert Einstein, or Thomas Mann may no longer continue their work, whether the reason is race, creed, or belief, all mankind suffers the loss. they must be defended in their right to speak the truth as they understand it. If we American scientists wish to avoid a similar fate, if we wish to see the world continue to progress and prosper, we must bend our efforts to that end now.”
https://www.jta.org/archive/manifesto-by-1284-noted-u-s-scientists-denounces-racialism-fascist-position-on-science



Открытие организации ACDIF (American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom) приурочили к годовщине со дня рождения Линкольна в феврале 1939. Девизом организации была выбрана цитата Линкольна "...that all men everywhere could be free".

Plans were under way today for a series of public meetings in metropolitan and college communities throughout the country on Lincoln’s birthday, sponsored by a committee of 28 prominent scientists, to rally support for democracy, free science and culture, and against racial, religious and other discrimination. The plans were announced yesterday by Prof. Franz Boas, chairman of the Lincoln’s Birthday Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom, at a luncheon of scientists and educators held at the Columbia University Faculty Club under the auspices of the New York section of the committee.
The “master meeting,” to be held on the afternoon of Feb. 12 in the Waldorf Astoria Hotel here, will feature an address by Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace on “Racial Theories and the Genetic Basis of Democracy,” which will be broadcast on a coast-to-coast network. Cities where other meetings will be held are Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, Washington, Albany and others. Rallies will also be held on many college campuses.
https://www.jta.org/archive/nation-wide-rallies-to-fight-intolerance-planned-on-lincolns-birthday

В своем выступлении Генри Уоллес разоблачал нацистскую идеологию и говорил о том, как работа ученых по преодолению бедности может способствовать укреплению демократии и предотвращению прихода демагогов к власти:

"When a political system fails to give large numbers of men the freedom it has promised, then they are willing to hand over their destiny to another political system. When the existing machinery of peace fails to give them any hope of national prosperity or national dignity, they are ready to try the hazard of war. When education fails to teach them the true nature of things, they will believe fantastic tales of devils and magic. When their normal life fails to give them anything but monotony and drabness, they are easily led to express themselves in unhealthy or cruel ways, as by mob violence. And when science fails to furnish effective leadership, men will exalt demagogues, and science will have to bow down to them or keep silent."
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1665260

В 1941, после переизбрания на свой третий срок, Рузвельт сделает Уоллеса вице-президентом США.



В 1950ых во время маккартистского процесса над Робертом Опенгеймером, который привел к лишению его доступа к секретным материалам, членство в ACDIF предъявлялось ему в качестве одного из обвинений.

It was further reported that in 1940 your name was included on a letterhead of the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom as a member of its National Executive Committee. The American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom was characterized in 1942 by the House Committee on Un-American Activities as a Communist-front which defended Communist teachers, and in 1943 it was characterized as subversive and Un-American by a Special Subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations.
The Board concludes that this allegation is true.
Dr. Oppenheimer testified before the Board to having joined the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom in 1937. He said that it then stood as a protest against what had happened to intellectuals and professionals in Germany. The Board had before it a letterhead of the "American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom." The letterhead contains a printed list of the National Executive Committee, which includes "Prof. J. R. Oppenheimer." Dr. Oppenheimer testified that he supposed he accepted membership on this Executive Committee although he did not meet with it.
https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/opp01.asp

Выражение "Communist-front which defended Communist teachers" относится к эпизоду, когда ACDIF вступилась за преподавателей в Нью-Йорке, которых расследовала комиссия Раппа-Кудерта в охоте за коммунистами и их тлетворным влиянием https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapp-Coudert_Committee. Работа этой комиссии в 1940-1941 стала предтечей послевоенного маккартизма.



When Bertrand Russell, the world-renowned philosopher, was offered a professorship in 1940 by the Board of Higher Education to teach at City College, conservative religious leaders campaigned against Russell’s appointment on the grounds that he was a “godless advocate of free love.” The Kay family of Brooklyn filed a lawsuit alleging that Russell’s presence on campus could corrupt the morals of their young daughter, who might attend City College in the future. When the Kays prevailed in court, then-mayor Fiorello Henry LaGuardia decided to withdraw funding for Russell’s position.
Immediately following the Russell furor, and during a period of heightened anti-Communism following the Hitler-Stalin Nonaggression Pact of 1939, state legislators in Albany created a joint legislative committee, the Rapp-Coudert Committee, in 1940. Part of the committee’s mandate was to examine the extent of “subversive activities” in public schools and colleges in New York City. The committee subpoenaed the membership lists of the New York Teachers Union and the College Teachers Union. The unions, which had successfully fought to maintain funding for public education, rightly viewed this action as a direct attack on the them and an attempt to reduce spending on education.
The Rapp-Coudert Committee held closed-door hearings from September 1940 through December 1941. It subpoenaed more than five hundred college faculty and staff members and schoolteachers- mainly union members-and more than fifty members of the American Student Union. The committee interrogated them about their political beliefs and their organizational affiliations, especially Communist Party membership. Denied the right to legal counsel, those questioned were pressured to reveal the names of colleagues involved in leftist activities. If individuals acknowledged membership in the Communist Party, they had to cooperate with the committee by naming other Communists. <...>
The Rapp-Coudert investigation and the subsequent Board of Higher Education trials led to the dismissal, nonreappointment, or resignation of more than fifty faculty and staff members at CCNY. This was the largest political purge of faculty on one campus in the history of the United States. City College lost many outstanding teachers, most of whom never worked in academia again. The purge ended when the United States entered World War II as an ally of the Soviet Union in the fight against Fascism.
But the techniques pioneered by the Rapp-Coudert Committee’s closed-door hearings, followed by public hearings for those individuals named by the committee’s “friendly witnesses,” served as a model for the anti-Communist investigations of the 1950s. During the McCarthy era, union activists who had survived Rapp-Coudert were again targeted by congressional investigating committees. Dozens of college faculty members and hundreds of public school teachers lost their jobs or resigned under pressure.
https://www.aaup.org/article/dress-rehearsal-mccarthyism

Прочитав про то, как глава комиссии, сенатор штата Нью-Йорк (позже республиканский конгрессмен) Фредерик Кудерт огрызается на ACDIF, Оппенгеймер написал ему письмо "as a remote and not very active member of the American Committee for Democracy and Intelectual Freedom" https://diglib.amphilsoc.org/islandora/object/text:94211

Из биографии Оппенгеймера, которая послужила основой для фильма:

His letter of October 13, 1941, was by stages polite in tone, witty, ironical and then cuttingly sarcastic. Oppenheimer reminded the senator that the Bill of Rights guaranteed not merely the right to hold any belief, however radical, but the right to express that belief in speech or in writing with “anonymity.” The activities, he wrote, of “teachers who were communists or communist sympathizers consisted precisely in meeting, speaking their views, and publishing them (often anonymously), in engaging, that is, in practices specifically protected by the Bill of Rights.” Concluding on a note of defiance, he observed that “it took your own statement, with its sanctimonious equivocations and its red baiting, to get me to believe that the stories of mixed cajolery, intimidation and arrogance on the part of the committee of which you are chairman, are in fact true.”



Кудерт защищал работу комиссии, которую он возглавлял, и утверждал, что они увольняли преподавателей не за убеждения, а за тайный коммунистический заговор и за вранье в показаниях https://www.nytimes.com/1941/09/26/archives/coudert-defends-his-red-inquiry-no-teacher-not-guilty-of-subversive.html Он объяснял, что зараженные коммунистической заразой организации следует уничтожать подобно тому, как хороший хозяин пристреливает собаку, зараженную бешенством: “Now if your dog had rabies you wouldn’t clap him into jail after he had bitten a number of persons-you’d put a bullet into his head, if you had that kind of iron in your blood. It is going to require brutal treatment to handle these teachers….” https://www.nytimes.com/1941/06/04/archives/coudert-decries-inroads-by-reds-says-free-assembly-and-speech-are.html

Работа Кудерта предстает в несколько ином свете, если обратить внимание на его связи с Борисом Бразолем, борцом с тайным заговором "сионских мудрецов". Американский анти-коммунизм исторически впитал в себя изрядную долю кондового антисемитизма.

From 1926, Brasol served as Russian legal adviser to numerous New York banks, law firms, and insurance companies, including National City Bank, Guaranty Trust, New York Life, Equitable Life, and the Cravath and Coudert Brothers law firms. His association with the Coudert firm, especially its leading light, Frederic Rene Coudert, Jr., is of particular note. Coudert had been the Russian imperial government's legal representatives in the United States, which is how Brasol first forged the connection. From the 20s to the 40s, F. R. Coudert was a tireless champion of right-wing, anti-Communist, and, according to some, antisemitic causes, which made him a natural patron for Brasol. In 1941, as a representative in the New York State legislature, Coudert presided over an inquisition into Red influence in the New York public schools, the notorious Rapp-Coudert Committee. According to investigative journalist George Seldes, among the committee's special advisers was Boris Brasol. Indeed, Seldes claimed to be "authoritatively informed" that Brasol had been "retained by Coudert Brothers" and, in fact, worked out of their offices. FBI informant Walter Winchell reported that "to contact Boris Brasol, all you have to do is call the Coudert firm's phone number!"
https://www.foiaresearch.net/document/richard-spence-tsars-other-lieutenant-antisemitic-activities-boris-lvovich-brasol-1910

Вместе с тем работу комиссии поддержали отдельные анти-сталинские либералы, которых напугало, с какой скоростью американские коммунисты развернулись и стали призывать к миру с Гитлером сразу после заключения пакта Молотова-Риббентропа. Была непонятно, к чему еще способна компартия США - тайная заговорщическая организация, которая контролируется внешними силами.



Дальше речь пойдет о двух ученых, оставивших след в XX веке, судьбы которых удивительно похожи. Они оба родились в Нью-Йорке в семьях еврейских иммигрантов из Российской империи. У каждого из них был брат, добившийся профессиональных успехов вне науки. Под влиянием брата каждый из них сменил фамилию с еврейской на псевдо-английскую, чтобы не мозолить глаза антисемитам. Оба уехали из послевоенной Америки, опасаясь маккартизма, и обрели новую жизнь в Англии, где преподавали в Кэмбридже и заслужили профессиональное признание. Оба были долго и счастливо женаты. Оба скончались в 74 года.

Но обо всем по порядку. Старшй из двоих - урожденный Моисей Финкельштейн, автор процитированных выше воспоминаний о студентах в столовой Колумбийского университета. По матери (в девичестве Каценеленбоген) - внук главного раввина Петербурга. Во время встречи с Боасом Финкельштейн был аспирантом на факультете истории. Он с головой ушел в организационную работу по сплочению ученых и созданию ACDIF и в это же время тайно вступил в компартию США. Стал жертвой расследования комиссии Раппа-Кодерта и был уволен из CCNY (City College of New York).

Боас писал про ACDIF: "I should like this opportunity to say that the effectiveness of the work of the Committee is almost entirely due to the work of Mr. M.I. Finkelstein, whose devotion and ability deserve the highest praise." https://www.proquest.com/docview/863813076

Среди советских кураторов Финкельштейн считался плохо управляемым, но в годы войны он оказал СССР неоценимую помощь в качестве администратора неправительственной и некоммерческой организации Russia War Relief, которая собирала частные пожертвования американцев для помощи Красной Армии. Кампания по сбору средств была энергичной и креативной.







Through 1941, Finkelstein was teaching ancient history at City College. In 1942, after City College let him go, he went work for Russian War Relief, Inc., which operated out of a small office building at 11 E. 35th Street. At one time or another the board of the organization included not just Communists and fellow travelers, but also Wall Streeters and one Soviet informant, the board's legal counsel, Duncan Lee. An American member of the Order of the British Empire, Edward Carter, honored for his World War I relief work, served as the public face of the board. Towards the end of the war, two prominent Jews, Stephen Wise and Albert Einstein, served as honorary co-chairmen. Finkelstein served as campaign director, a post he held from some unknown time the mid-forties until 1946. At the end of the war, Carter wrote in praise of Finkelstein's service, and added that he "had been with Russian Relief for its entire history." <...>
Finkelstein would rather have been fighting. Although Edward Carter offered to get him an exemption, sometime in 1942 he himself to a draft board, probably on the Upper West Side. They rejected him on the grounds that he was suffering from "a severe psychoneurosis." If they meant that he was highly agitated, they were right. Over the next two years, Finkelstein led the way in raising about one quarter of all private American overseas aid. By 1944, Russian War Relief raised some $50 million, and it met a 1945 quota of $25 million more. The Jewish council raised $10 million, including $3 million in 1945. In 1946, 2,840 delegates attended the fifth annual conference of this one slice of Russian War Relief. They represented 2,430 groups that had made contributions.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/24559869

$85 миллионов в 1945 - примерно полтора миллиарда в сегодняшних деньгах. Кем из советских начальников была оприходована эта помощь, определить сложно. После войны в СССР публично наградили Эдварда Картера, номинального главу огранизации, и некоторых других лиц, но не Финкельштейна, который с бешенной энергией тащил на себе организационную работу.

29 августа 1945 г. в зале приемов Верховного Совета СССР состоялась церемония награждения орденами и медалями СССР деятелей американского Комитета «Помощь России в войне». В опубликованном тексте соответствующего Указа Президиума Верховного Совета СССР от 27 августа 1945 г. говорилось: «За выдающиеся заслуги в проведении общественных мероприятий в Соединенных Штатах Америки по оказанию помощи населению Советского Союза в войне против общего врага наградить: орденом Трудового Красного Знамени председателя Комитета Помощи России в войне Эдварда Картера и исполнительного директора Фреда Майерса, медалью “За трудовое отличие” экономического директора Давида Вейнгарда и московского представителя Лео Грулио».
Масштаб помощи, оказанной сражавшемуся с фашизмом СССР в рамках Комитета «Помощь России в войне», конечно, не идет ни в какое сравнение с поставками США Советскому Союзу по программе ленд-лиза, которая измерялась миллиардами долларов, однако и десятки миллионов долларов, направленные американским народом в виде безвозмездной гуманитарной помощи населению СССР, стали для него неоценимой материальной и моральной поддержкой.
https://kontinentusa.com/komitet-pomoshh-rossii-v-vojne-amerikanskaya-gumanitarnaya-pomoshh-sssr-v-gody-velikoj-otechestvennoj-vojny/



В материалах Russia War Relief - изданный на английском и идише буклет с речью Альберта Эйнштейна, почетного сопредседателя организации, на ужине 25 октября 1942.

"Again, let us consider how extraordinarily successful Russia has been in fostering the intellectual life of her people. Mammoth editions of the best books are distributed everywhere and eagerly read and studied-this in a country where 25 years before all culture was restricted to a very thin layer of the privileged few. This is a revolution which we can only faintly conceive.
Finally, let me mention a fact of peculiar and decisive importance for us Jews. In Russia, there is not only a formal but an actual equality of nationalities and cultural groups of every sort. “Equal goals and equal rights with equal contribution’ is no empty phrase, but a standard followed in actual life.
So much about Russia as she is today. Now a little more about what she means to us. Suppose she were to be defeated by the German hordes, as nearly the whole continent was defeated before her. Where should we be, we in England and America? I think it takes no great stretch of the imagination to see that we should be in a very bad way. Personally, I think that without Russia the German bloodhounds would have reached their goal, or even today would still reach it.
So it is merely a dictate of self ׳preservation, that we shall do for Russia all that our uttermost effort can do. This quite aside from the fact that the huge losses and sufferings of her people have laid on us and our children a debt we must be conscious of every hour of our lives, if we want to retain our own self ׳respect. Let us conduct ourselves accordingly and give our full support to the Jewish Council for Russian War Relief."
https://digital.library.cornell.edu/catalog/ss:21072652



На плакате Russian War Relief советская территория, оккупированная Германией, накладывалась на карту Америки, чтобы помочь американцам почувствовать масштаб трагедии.

Russian War Relief, Inc. 11 E. 35th St., New York City, presents this map to help Americans to visualize the almost inconceivable extent of the need for American aid to the people of the Soviet Union. From the vast invaded area of the USSR, here shown superimposed on a map of the United States, 38,000,000 Russians escaped the Nazis in 1941 by fleeing their homes. Strafed by dive bombers and machine-gunning “hedge-hoppers,” they fled across their country before the invaders while their Red Army fought and fell back - fought and fell back. <...> Ten million have died in the fight that is theirs and ours. The Red Army has lost almost as many men, in killed and wounded, as are now in all the American armed forces! Civilians have died - by millions - of malnutrition, cold, exhaustion, disease - and of the Nazi hangman’s noose and the bullets of Nazi firing squads. Hundreds of thousands of Soviet homes are sheltering the war’s orphans.
Look at the map. Imagine the tragedy to you and your family if an invader had ravaged America throughout all that shaded territory on our Atlantic seaboard, westward all the way to St. Louis and Tulsa. Because the equivalent of that tragedy has happened to millions of our Soviet allies, Russian War Relief, Inc., asks all Americans to help keep relief ships sailing.
https://bigthink.com/strange-maps/barbarossa-usa/



В 1947 Моисей Финкельштейн отошел от политического активизма и сконцентрировался на своей специальности - истории древнего мира. Вслед за братом он сменил фамилию на Финли. Его брат Мордехай Финкельштейн стал называть себя Мюррей Говард Финли и успешно реализовался в качестве профсоюзного деятеля, главы профсоюза работников текстильной промышленности. На снимке он изображен рядом с Кореттой Скотт Кинг, вдовой Мартина Лютера Кинга.

As president of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, he worked to unite it and the Textile Workers Union of America. He became president of the combined union in 1976. He also helped lead the four-year drive in the late 1970s that organized J.P. Stevens and Co., the second-largest textile manufacturer in the country.
In July of this year, his union joined with the International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union to become UNITE, the Union of Needletrades, Industrial and Textile Employees.
Mr. Finley was co-chairman with Coretta Scott King of the Full Employment Action Council and was a key figure in promoting Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s birthday as a national holiday.
https://www.chicagotribune.com/1995/08/02/former-union-chief-murray-finley-73/

"How the Finkelsteins became the Finleys is in many respects the classic American story of ingenuity, mobility, and assimilation. Nathan Finkelstein, a college-educated son of merchants, and Anna Katzenellenbogen, daughter of a prominent rabbi, emigrated to the United States in the early days of the 20th century, chiefly to escape Jewish persecution and the rumors of European war. Nathan moved his family from Syracuse, New York, to Flint, Michigan, where he took work as an automotive engineer. He and Anna had four children: Moses Isaac, Gertrude, Israel Harris, and my grandfather, Mordechai. Soon after the war, when Israel sought a management position with the Ford Motor Company, he was told exactly what the chances were of someone named Israel Finkelstein becoming a manager for Ford. With the patriarch’s blessing, Israel was allowed to change his name, and his brothers also jumped at the opportunity. The three brothers chose their new surname from that holy book of names - the phone book. And thus, the Finkelsteins became the Finleys. Israel became Larry Finley, Moses Isaac went by M.I. Finley, and Mordechai became Murray Finley, even adding “Howard” as a middle name for good measure."
https://longreads.com/2017/12/12/finding-my-identity-by-the-light-of-my-mothers-menorah/



Когда надвинулись тучи маккартизма, профессор Финли навсегда покинул Америку, чтобы обосноваться в Кэмбридже, и приобрел широкое признание трудами по истории. Организационные способности пригодились: в 1976 Финли возглавил Darwin College, одно из ключевых подразделений Кембриджа, а в 1979 был произведен королевой в рыцарское звание, став сэром Моисеем Финли https://www.darwin.cam.ac.uk/study/ Его портретом украшен традиционный зал для ужина (Dining Hall).

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Человек, судьба которого напоминает судьбу Финкельштейна/Финли - герой недавнего документального фильма "A Compassionate Spy".

Урожденный Тед Гольцберг, сменивший под влиянием брата фамилию на Холл, был несомненным вундеркиндом. Перепрыгивая через классы, он закончил школу в 15 лет и поступил в Гарвард, который закончил в 18 лет с дипломом по физике. На дворе стоял 1944, и Тед немедленно попал на работу в Лос Аламос, где стал самым молодым физиком Манхэттенского проекта. Его работа относилась с созданию взрывного устройства для бомбы.



В Гарварде малолетнему вундеркинду было одиноко, и он близко сдружился с другим еврейским мальчиком по имени Сэвилл ("Сэви") Сакс. Родители Сакса были из тех иммигрантов, которые, спасшись из Российской империи, плохо прижились в Америке и относились с большой симпатией к Сталину и СССР. В доме говорили только на идише, и Сэви на первых порах тяжело пришлось приспосабливаться в школе к английскому. Но он проявил большие способности, которые привели его в Гарвард, хотя он не смог там задержаться и скоро вылетел. Так всю жизнь и был бы неудачником, если бы не сдружился с Тедом Холлом и не помог тому своровать атомные секреты для передачи их советской разведке.

Блума Сакс, мать Сэви, работала в упомянутой выше организации Russia War Relief, которая контачила с советскими представителями. Она помогла сыну выйти на контакт. В шифровках разведки, раскрытых ФБР по проекту Venona, Холлу было присвоено кодовое имя МЛАД, а Саксу - СТАР.

He was an instigator for Hall, but Hall was the source agent, the precocious teenager who went to the remote, guarded site in New Mexico and extracted priceless knowledge for Soviet intelligence officers, while Sax, who dropped out of Harvard at the same time, acted as his first courier. The Soviet intelligence and security service (NKVD) gave nineteen-year-old Hall the codename Mlad (youngster) and gave twenty-year-old Sax, facetiously, the codename Star (old-timer). Sax was involved in the first transmissions of materials in late 1944, consisting of descriptions of the faraway laboratory, its internationally renowned scientific team, and some of its initial experiments. The prize package, however, was entrusted to another courier in August 1945, when Leontina “Lona” Cohen met Hall in Albuquerque and received a detailed drawing, together with the necessary specifics, of the finished plutonium bomb. This was the bomb called “Fat Man,” which had been dropped on Nagasaki in August 1945 and which Soviet nuclear weapons scientists decided to copy.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/26925549



Kurnakov asked Theodore Hall if the United States were developing flying bombs similar those being used by Nazi Germany (V-I and V-2). Hall replied "No, it's much worse." Hall told Kurnakov that he was part of a team working on an "atomic bomb" that would have a "colossally destructive impact". Kurnakov claimed that he warned Hall: "Do you understand what you are doing? Why do you think it is necessary to disclose U.S. secrets for the sake of the Soviet Union?" Hall answered: "There is no country except for the Soviet Union that could be entrusted with such a terrible thing. But, since we can't take it away from other countries, we should let the USSR know about its existence and be aware of the progress of experiments and construction. Then, at a peace conference, the USSR - on which my generation's fate depends - won't find itself in the position of a blackmailed power.... All the outstanding physicists of the U.S., England, Italy and Germany (immigrants), and Denmark are working on this thing.... We know that both Germany and the USSR are working on a bomb whose action is based on fission of the atom of some elements (uranium and another element, which we call plutonium and which is the 94th element. However, there are few doubts that the U.S. is ahead of the rest, since all of Europe's brains, except the Russians, are concentrated in this country, and billions are being spent. Besides, we have four (or more) cyclotrons, and in other countries, according to data we have, there are no more than two in any country."
Over the next few months Hall had several meetings with Kurnakov where he explained the main principles of the atomic bomb and provided him with a large number of documents. "He proposed organizing meetings... to inform us about the progress of experiments, for he considers this most important: i.e., the principle itself is not important, since it is known to everyone, but the stage at which practical experiments on explosion and its control, the bomb shell's construction, etc., are important." It is claimed that Hall revealed important information about the more sophisticated of the two bomb designs being developed, the plutonium weapon eventually dropped on Nagasaki. It seems that Hall supplied his first secrets from Los Alamos before Klaus Fuchs did.
https://spartacus-educational.com/Theodore_Hall.htm

Предательства Холла было более серьезным, чем у четы Розенбергов, казненных на электрическом стуле, или у посаженного британцами немца Клауса Фукса, мельком показанного в фильме "Оппенгеймер". Сведения, полученные от Фукса, подтвердили информацию, раннее выданную Холлом, повысив ее убедительность для Лаврентия Берии, ответственного за советский проект.

Узнав из шифровок о роли Холла и Сакса, сотрудники ФБР допросили их раздельно в 1951, но не смогли поймать на очевидном вранье. Шифровки нельзя было нести в суд, не выдав секрета про прослушку, таким образом двух сорванцов пришлось оставить на свободе. Публично об их истории стало известно только в 1996.



После войны Холл последовал за Эдвардом Теллером в Чикаго, где поступил в аспирантуру и встретил спутницу жизни, с которой поделился своим секретом. Он продолжал сотрудничать с советской разведкой. В 1962 Холлы уехали в Англию, где у него сложилась успешная научная карьера в Кэмбридже в области биофизики.

Although Hall refused to answer questions about espionage activities, he was happy to talk about his scientific accomplishments, which include the development of a technique for the analysis of the composition of elemental components using an electron microscope. During his 40-year-career as a physicist and biophysicist, he published more than 160 scientific papers.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1996/02/25/code-name-mlad-atomic-bomb-spy/bc2298c8-d6e0-4e44-859e-4ef7338596b1/



В это время Эд Холл, старший брат Теда Холла, убедивший его сменить фамилию, служил военным инженером в ранге полковника и сыграл ключевую роль в создании межконтинентальных баллистических ракет Minuteman.

Colonel Edward Hall was the man responsible in designing and developing the new Minuteman ICBM. In February of 1958 the AFBMD, Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, (formerly called the Western Development Division) sent Col. Hall to Washington DC to convince the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of the Air Force, and General Curtis Lemay, commander of the Strategic Air Command, SAC, that the Minuteman missile was the ICBM worthy of development.
https://minutemanmissile.com/minutemani.html

Жизнь бывает причудливее фантазии.

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Есть ли мораль во всей этой истории? Коммунистическая революция Америке не грозила. Американская анти-коммунистическая паранойя, замешанная на «Протоколах сионских мудрецов», принесла много вреда, который продолжается до сих пор. В то же время вложение кремлевских кураторов в компартию США полностью окупилось, поспособствовав краже атомных секретов. Советская бомба вдохновила Сталина на авантюру Корейской войны, а Хрущева - на собственные авантюры, в том числе в виде угроз Израилю. С третьей стороны, Сталин был «меньшим злом» во время борьбы с Гитлером, и эта борьба была бы менее успешной без миллионов угробленных советских граждан. Выдающиеся ученые могут быть близоруки вне своей науки, а их приверженность общечеловеческим ценностям можно использовать для подрыва их лояльности к своей стране. Зло порождает зло, но генерирует и противоядие против него. Советские авантюры привели к созданию НАТО, а ученые, которых советским властям пришлось прикармливать для создания оружия, расшатали СССР изнутри. Жизнь продолжается…

Рассказ о еврейских профессорах из прошлого хотел дополнить рассказом о палестинских профессорах и «маккартизме» нашего времени, но за неимением места сделаю это в комментариях.