Presidents at Peace: James Monroe and the Era of Good Feelings
Early 19th Century Americans weren't exactly known for expressing their feelings, and yet in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812, America entered into a time of political peace during the administration of James Monroe, that became known as the "Era of Good Feelings." The outbreak of political peace was so strong that in the election of 1820, Monroe ran unopposed, and would have been the second president to sweep the electoral college, were it not for the fact that one elector voted against him, not out of contempt for Monroe, but out of respect for the first president to achieve the feat: George Washington.
The Era of Good Feelings began at the end of the War of 1812, when the bitter political divisions between Federalists and Republicans, North and South, and the East coast cities and settlers on the western frontier, seemed to subside. Political hostilities declined and the Federalist Party had largely dissolved and ceased to be a national political force. The war had brought about a mood for nationalism. It had made people realize the need for a a permanent and prominent federal role for the national health and welfare.
In one of his last messages to Congress, Monroe's predecessor James Madison announced a shift in policy with measures for a national bank and a protective tariff on manufactures. In a letter to Monroe in 1817, Madison declared that, “there has never been a moment when such a proposition to the states was so likely so be approved.” The public seemed less concerned about nationalist policies because the war had made it appreciate the need for a strong nationalist response.
Monroe won a landslide victory against Federalist Rufus King in the election of 1816. Monroe's victory was a foregone conclusion. It was so widely predicted that voter turnout was low. A spirit of reconciliation between Republicans and Federalists seemed underway when Monroe assumed office in March 1817.
As president, Monroe decided to govern with a spirit of reconciliation between the two political parties in order to harmonize the country in a common national outlook, rather than party interests. Both parties requested that he include a Federalist in his cabinet to symbolize the new era of “oneness” that pervaded the nation. Monroe declined to do so however. He believed that the Federalist Party was committed to installing a monarch and overthrowing republican forms of government, and he felt that appointing a Federalist would only serve to prolong the inevitable decline and fall of the opposition. Monroe made it clear that his administration would never allow itself to become tainted with Federalist ideology. As a practical matter, he was also concerned that doing so would create jealousy within his own party by appearing to accommodate any Federalist, at the expense of a Republican. This, he believed, would only serve to create factions.
Monroe hoped to merge former Federalists with Republicans as a prelude to eliminating party associations altogether from national politics, much as George Washington had wanted. Monroe wrote that all political parties were by their very nature incompatible with free government. He felt that the business of governing was best conducted by disinterested statesmen, acting exclusively in the national interest - not on behalf of sectional interests or personal ambition. He termed this “amalgamation” - the supposed end of party warfare and the beginning of the “politics of consensus.” This policy echoed the arguments made by President George Washington in his farewell address in 1796 and his warnings against political “factions.”
Monroe wanted to bring about the end of the Federalist Party through neglect. Federalists were denied all political patronage, administrative appointments and federal support of any kind. Monroe pursued this policy dispassionately and without any desire to persecute the Federalists. He wanted to remove them from positions of political power, both Federal and State, especially in its New England strongholds.
In his public statements, Monroe was careful to avoid any comments that could be interpreted as politically partisan. He never attacked the Federalist party, he chose not to mention them in his speeches whatsoever. As far as he was concerned, they ceased to exist. In his private encounters with Federalists, he was civil and police, but made no promises or commitments.
Monroe embarked on country-wide good-will tours in 1817 and 1819. He visited New England, including the Federalist stronghold of Boston, and was well received. It was here that a local journalist coined the phrase “Era of Good Feelings”. On the tour Monroe wore a Revolutionary War officer's uniform and tied his long powdered hair in a queue according to the old-fashioned style of the 18th century, even though this was no longer the style. Yet in spite of this formality, contemporary accounts describe Monroe as having the ability to put put people at ease by his courtesy, lack of condescension, his frankness, and what his one contemporary writer called "the essential goodness and kindness of heart which he always radiated."
Monroe’s visit to Boston elicited a huge outpouring of nationalist sentiment and feelings of reconciliation. New England Federalists were anxious to demonstrate their loyalty and support for Monroe. But even in this positive atmosphere of reconciliation, Monroe was careful not to make any promises of favor to former Federalists. He was also careful to avoid any saying or doing anything that might appear to offend or humiliate his hosts. He presented himself as the head of state, and not as the leader of a triumphant political party.
It was inevitable that the era of good feelings would be too good to last. Former president James Madison had cautioned Monroe that in any free government, it was natural that party identity would take shape, and ultimately rivalries developed within Monroe's party. Toward the end of his first term, the Panic of 1819 struck. The Supreme Court’s decision in McCulloch v. Maryland reignited the dispute between state's rights and federal power. The Missouri Crisis in 1820 brought the political conflict between slave and free states to the forefront and it was only through the skillful handling of the legislation by Speaker of the House Henry Clay that a settlement reached and disunion avoided.
It wasn't long before political factions and party fighting reappeared on the scene. The controversial election of 1824 (decided by the House of Representatives after no candidate emerged with a majority in the electoral college) would result in conflict between the new President and his congress. The Era of Good Feelings was over.
The Era of Good Feelings began at the end of the War of 1812, when the bitter political divisions between Federalists and Republicans, North and South, and the East coast cities and settlers on the western frontier, seemed to subside. Political hostilities declined and the Federalist Party had largely dissolved and ceased to be a national political force. The war had brought about a mood for nationalism. It had made people realize the need for a a permanent and prominent federal role for the national health and welfare.
In one of his last messages to Congress, Monroe's predecessor James Madison announced a shift in policy with measures for a national bank and a protective tariff on manufactures. In a letter to Monroe in 1817, Madison declared that, “there has never been a moment when such a proposition to the states was so likely so be approved.” The public seemed less concerned about nationalist policies because the war had made it appreciate the need for a strong nationalist response.
Monroe won a landslide victory against Federalist Rufus King in the election of 1816. Monroe's victory was a foregone conclusion. It was so widely predicted that voter turnout was low. A spirit of reconciliation between Republicans and Federalists seemed underway when Monroe assumed office in March 1817.
As president, Monroe decided to govern with a spirit of reconciliation between the two political parties in order to harmonize the country in a common national outlook, rather than party interests. Both parties requested that he include a Federalist in his cabinet to symbolize the new era of “oneness” that pervaded the nation. Monroe declined to do so however. He believed that the Federalist Party was committed to installing a monarch and overthrowing republican forms of government, and he felt that appointing a Federalist would only serve to prolong the inevitable decline and fall of the opposition. Monroe made it clear that his administration would never allow itself to become tainted with Federalist ideology. As a practical matter, he was also concerned that doing so would create jealousy within his own party by appearing to accommodate any Federalist, at the expense of a Republican. This, he believed, would only serve to create factions.
Monroe hoped to merge former Federalists with Republicans as a prelude to eliminating party associations altogether from national politics, much as George Washington had wanted. Monroe wrote that all political parties were by their very nature incompatible with free government. He felt that the business of governing was best conducted by disinterested statesmen, acting exclusively in the national interest - not on behalf of sectional interests or personal ambition. He termed this “amalgamation” - the supposed end of party warfare and the beginning of the “politics of consensus.” This policy echoed the arguments made by President George Washington in his farewell address in 1796 and his warnings against political “factions.”
Monroe wanted to bring about the end of the Federalist Party through neglect. Federalists were denied all political patronage, administrative appointments and federal support of any kind. Monroe pursued this policy dispassionately and without any desire to persecute the Federalists. He wanted to remove them from positions of political power, both Federal and State, especially in its New England strongholds.
In his public statements, Monroe was careful to avoid any comments that could be interpreted as politically partisan. He never attacked the Federalist party, he chose not to mention them in his speeches whatsoever. As far as he was concerned, they ceased to exist. In his private encounters with Federalists, he was civil and police, but made no promises or commitments.
Monroe embarked on country-wide good-will tours in 1817 and 1819. He visited New England, including the Federalist stronghold of Boston, and was well received. It was here that a local journalist coined the phrase “Era of Good Feelings”. On the tour Monroe wore a Revolutionary War officer's uniform and tied his long powdered hair in a queue according to the old-fashioned style of the 18th century, even though this was no longer the style. Yet in spite of this formality, contemporary accounts describe Monroe as having the ability to put put people at ease by his courtesy, lack of condescension, his frankness, and what his one contemporary writer called "the essential goodness and kindness of heart which he always radiated."
Monroe’s visit to Boston elicited a huge outpouring of nationalist sentiment and feelings of reconciliation. New England Federalists were anxious to demonstrate their loyalty and support for Monroe. But even in this positive atmosphere of reconciliation, Monroe was careful not to make any promises of favor to former Federalists. He was also careful to avoid any saying or doing anything that might appear to offend or humiliate his hosts. He presented himself as the head of state, and not as the leader of a triumphant political party.
It was inevitable that the era of good feelings would be too good to last. Former president James Madison had cautioned Monroe that in any free government, it was natural that party identity would take shape, and ultimately rivalries developed within Monroe's party. Toward the end of his first term, the Panic of 1819 struck. The Supreme Court’s decision in McCulloch v. Maryland reignited the dispute between state's rights and federal power. The Missouri Crisis in 1820 brought the political conflict between slave and free states to the forefront and it was only through the skillful handling of the legislation by Speaker of the House Henry Clay that a settlement reached and disunion avoided.
It wasn't long before political factions and party fighting reappeared on the scene. The controversial election of 1824 (decided by the House of Representatives after no candidate emerged with a majority in the electoral college) would result in conflict between the new President and his congress. The Era of Good Feelings was over.