Road to the Presidency: James Garfield
James Garfield was a very learned man. He is also the only President to have been a clergyman. At age 16, he left home, planning on going to sea. He worked for six weeks as a canal driver on Lake Erie, but he return home due to illness. Once he recovered from his illness, he attended Geauga Seminary, at Chester, Ohio, and his intellectual curiosity took over. He became keenly interested in academics, both learning and teaching. Garfield worked as a janitor, bell ringer, and carpenter to support himself financially at the Geauga Seminary. In 1849, he took a job as a teacher.
As a youth he attended the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute (later named Hiram College) in Hiram, Ohio from 1851 to 1854. His favorite subjects were Greek and Latin. He was also hired to teach. It was during this period of his life that the 20something Garfield began preaching. He had a regular preaching circuit at neighboring churches, and was usually pair a gold dollar per service. Garfield enrolled at Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, where he graduated in 1856. Garfield earned a reputation as a skilled debater and served as President of the Philogian Society and Editor of the Williams Quarterly.
In 1858, Garfield applied for a job as principal of a high school in Poestenkill, New York, but lost the competition for the job. He returned to teach at the Eclectic Institute, teaching classical languages for the 1856-1857 academic year. He became Principal of the Institute from 1857 to 1860. It was during this time, that Garfield became interested in Republican politics, though he did not join the party yet. He did not consider himself an abolitionist, but was opposed to slavery. He became a stump speaker in support of the Republican Party and their anti-slavery cause.
Garfield began to study law in 1859. He was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1861. In 1859 he was nominated and later elected as an Ohio state senator in, serving until 1861. After Abraham Lincoln's election, Garfield was initially opposed to war, favoring negotiation instead. On February 13, 1861, Lincoln arrived in Cincinnati by train to make a speech. Garfield was favorably impressed, even though he described Lincoln as "distressingly homely".
When the Civil War began, Garfield attempted to obtain an officer's commission in the Union Army. Ohio Governor William Dennison, Jr. assigned him a mission to travel to Illinois to acquire guns and to negotiate with the Governors of Illinois and Indiana for the consolidation of troops. In the summer of 1861 he was commissioned a lieutenant colonel in the Union Army and given command of the 42nd Ohio Volunteer Infantry. General Don Carlos Buell assigned Colonel Garfield the task of driving Confederate forces out of eastern Kentucky in November 1861. In December, he departed from Catlettsburg, Kentucky, with troops from Ohio, Kentucky, and western Virgina. On January 6, 1862, Garfield's cavalry met the Confederates at Jenny's Creek. Garfield deceived the Confederates into thinking that they were outnumbered, when in fact they were not. The Confederates withdrew and Garfield attacked on January 9, 1862. At the end of the day's fighting the Confederates retreated, but Garfield did not pursue them, opting instead to withdraw to Prestonsburg so he could resupply his men. His victory brought him early recognition and he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general on January 11.
Garfield later commanded the 20th Brigade of Ohio under Buell at the Battle of Shiloh, where he led troops in an attempt to reinforce Major General Ulysses S. Grant, after a surprise attack by Confederate General Albert S. Johnston. He then served in the Siege of Corinth, where he assisted in the pursuit of Confederates in retreat. Garfield was critical of the overly cautious Major General Henry W. Halleck, who allowed the escape of General P. G. T. Beauregard and his troops.
In the summer of 1862 Garfield's experienced health problem, including jaundice and significant weight loss. He was forced to return home but returned to duty that autumn and served on the Court-martial of Fitz John Porter. Garfield was then sent to Washington to receive further orders. It was at this time that it is alleged that Garfield had an extra-marital affair.
In the spring of 1863, Garfield returned to the field as Chief of Staff for William Rosecrans, commander of the Army of the Cumberland. Garfield and Rosecrans got along well, as both were well-read and well-educated. Garfield designed a campaign designed to pursue and then trap Confederate General Braxton Bragg in Tullahoma. The plan almost worked, but Bragg retreated toward Chattanooga. Rosecrans stalled his army and made repeated requests for more troops and supplies over Garfield's objection. Garfield planned a cavalry raid behind Bragg's line, but the raid failed, due to poor execution and bad weather.
At the Battle of Chickamauga, Rosecrans' believed that the battle was lost when the enemy broke through a gap in his line, but Garfield rode across Missionary Ridge to survey the Union status. Garfield sent a telegram to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton asking for reinforcements to avoid annihilation. Some 20,000 troops were sent to Chattanooga by rail within nine days. Rosecrans was replaced by General George H. Thomas. Garfield was issued orders to report to Washington, where he was promoted to major general. Garfield had been elected to Congress in Ohio's 19th Congressional District in October 1862, while he was serving in the army. Abraham Lincoln convinced Garfield to take his seat in Congress and Garfield resigned his commission.
In Congress Garfield became a staunch supporter of what he termed "honest money", i.e. money backed by a gold standard. He opposed the "greenback. He served on Schenck's Military Affairs Committee, and he supported the need for a military draft. He voted to terminate the practice of commutation (a system in which men could buy their way out of service). He was one of these who led the way for the passage of an aggressive conscription bill which excluded commutation.
Garfield, aligned with the Radical Republicans on many issues. He favored the abolition of slavery and believed that the leaders of the rebellion had forfeited their constitutional rights. He supported the confiscation of southern plantations as well as exile or execution of rebellion leaders as a means to ensure the end of slavery. He spoke of the government's obligation to "secure equal justice to all loyal persons, without regard to color."
In the 1864 Congressional election, Garfield was re-elected and he too his family with him to live in Washington. Garfield dabbled in land speculation, but met with limited success. He made some money from an oil exploration investment and he resumed the practice of law in 1865 as a means to earning more money.
Following Lincoln's assassination, Garfield took on the role of peacemaker between Congress and Andrew Johnson. But when Johnson's veto terminated the Freedmen's Bureau, Garfield rejoined the Radical Republicans. Garfield was placed on the House Ways and Means Committee, where he continued his opposition to the greenback. He favored the tariff, when it served to protect his district's products. He was re-elected in 1866. He served as chairman of the Military Affairs Committee, and considered the reorganization and reduction of the armed forces. Garfield supported articles of impeachment against President Andrew Johnson over charges that he violated the Tenure of Office Act by removing Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. Garfield was absent for the actual vote due to legal work.
In 1868 Garfield was re-elected by a 2 to 1 margin. Garfield harbored some resentment against new President Ulysses Grant over Grant's dismissal of General Rosecrans. He was appointed chair of the Banking and Currency Committee and he successfully sponsored a bill to establish a Department of Education. In September 1870 Garfield was chairman of a Congressional committee investigating the Black Friday Gold Panic scandal. Garfield blamed the fluctuating greenback for causing the greed and speculation that led to the scandal. Garfield's committee investigated President Grant's wife Julia's financial records, increasing tensions between Grant and Garfield.
Garfield won re-election in 1870. He was appointed Chairman of the Appropriations Committee. Garfield opposed land grants to expanding railroads to be an unjust practice, as well as monopolistic practices by corporations and the power sought by labor unions. He also supported civil service reform. Garfield's district was redrawn to his advantage and he was re-elected in 1872. In 1872, he was one of a number of Congressmen involved in the alleged Crédit Mobilier of America scandal. The principals of the Union Pacific Railroad formed Crédit Mobilier of America and issued stock. Congressman Oakes Ames testified that Garfield had purchased 10 shares of Crédit Mobiler stock for $1000, but he had returned the stock to the seller. The scandal did not imperil his political career severely. His Appropriation Committee recommended an increase in Congressional and Presidential salaries., which Garfield voted for, even though he opposed. His vote hurt him politically, and he returned his own salary increase to the U.S. Treasury.
In the 1874 campaign, an issue arose about another questionable transaction on Garfield's part. A paving contractor for Washington, D.C., named DeGolyer McClelland contributions of $90,000 to congressional member, including $5,000 to Garfield. Garfield claimed that this was a legal fee for legitimate work done for the company. In spite f this, Garfield re-election, though by a smaller margin than in the past. The Democrats assumed control of Congress in the 1874 election for the first time in 20 years. As the 1876 Presidential election approached, Garfield supported the candidacy of his House Speaker, James G. Blaine. When the party nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, Garfield immediately endorsed his fellow Ohioan. He won re-election with 60% of the vote. The victory was marred by personal tragedy as Garfield's youngest child Neddie suddenly fell ill with whooping cough and died.
In the disputed election of 1876, Grant asked Garfield to serve as an observer in the recount in Louisiana. Garfield's report of voter intimidation by Democratic "rifle clubs" gave reason for a challenge of the election results. Congress then passed a bill establishing the Electoral Commission to decided the outcome of the election. Garfield was appointed as a member of the commission. Hayes emerged the victor by a Commission vote of 8 to 7. James G. Blaine moved from the House to the United States Senate, and Garfield became the minority Republican House Leader.
Garfield continued to serve in congress and was re-elected for the final time in 1878. When the Ohio off-year campaign of 1879 approached, Garfield sought the U. S. Senate seat for Ohio, vacated by John Sherman. A Republican victory in the Ohio legislature was necessary, and what that occurred, Garfield was elected to the Senate by acclamation. His term was supposed to be begin in 1880.
In early 1880 Garfield endorsed John Sherman for the party's Presidential nomination in exchange for Sherman's earlier support of Garfield for the Senate. At the outset of the Republican convention, a deadlock ensued between supporters of former President Grant, James G. Blaine, and John Sherman. Delegates began to look to Garfield as an acceptable compromise choice. On the 34th ballot, Wisconsin began the break to Garfield and just two ballots later Garfield won the 1880 Republican Nomination for the Presidency. To obtain Republican Stalwart support for the ticket, former New York customs collector Chester A. Arthur was chosen as the vice-presidential nominee and Garfield's running mate.
Garfield traveled to New York to bring the party's warring factions together in what was called the "New York Conference". Garfield was able to mend part fences. One issue in the election of 1880 was Chinese immigration. Those in the West, particularly California, were opposed to Chinese immigration, while easterners were in favor of it. Democrats widely published a letter, allegedly signed by Garfield, which favored Chinese immigration, though the letter was likely a forgery. The issue proved to be of little consequence as Garfield defeated the Democratic candidate Winfield Scott Hancock by 214 electoral votes to 155. The popular vote was much closer. Garfield just over 7,000 more votes than his opponent out of more than 8.89 million cast. He became the only man ever to be elected to the Presidency directly from the House of Representatives and for a short period of time he was a sitting Representative, Senator-elect, and President-elect.
Garfield had planned on pursuing a program of civil service reform. But just four months into his presidency Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, a deranged political office seeker, on July 2, 1881. Garfield lived for 80 days after he was shot, but was unable to govern. Garfield's persistent call for civil service reform would later be fulfilled with the passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, enacted by Congress and signed by President Chester A. Arthur in 1883.
As a youth he attended the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute (later named Hiram College) in Hiram, Ohio from 1851 to 1854. His favorite subjects were Greek and Latin. He was also hired to teach. It was during this period of his life that the 20something Garfield began preaching. He had a regular preaching circuit at neighboring churches, and was usually pair a gold dollar per service. Garfield enrolled at Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, where he graduated in 1856. Garfield earned a reputation as a skilled debater and served as President of the Philogian Society and Editor of the Williams Quarterly.
In 1858, Garfield applied for a job as principal of a high school in Poestenkill, New York, but lost the competition for the job. He returned to teach at the Eclectic Institute, teaching classical languages for the 1856-1857 academic year. He became Principal of the Institute from 1857 to 1860. It was during this time, that Garfield became interested in Republican politics, though he did not join the party yet. He did not consider himself an abolitionist, but was opposed to slavery. He became a stump speaker in support of the Republican Party and their anti-slavery cause.
Garfield began to study law in 1859. He was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1861. In 1859 he was nominated and later elected as an Ohio state senator in, serving until 1861. After Abraham Lincoln's election, Garfield was initially opposed to war, favoring negotiation instead. On February 13, 1861, Lincoln arrived in Cincinnati by train to make a speech. Garfield was favorably impressed, even though he described Lincoln as "distressingly homely".
When the Civil War began, Garfield attempted to obtain an officer's commission in the Union Army. Ohio Governor William Dennison, Jr. assigned him a mission to travel to Illinois to acquire guns and to negotiate with the Governors of Illinois and Indiana for the consolidation of troops. In the summer of 1861 he was commissioned a lieutenant colonel in the Union Army and given command of the 42nd Ohio Volunteer Infantry. General Don Carlos Buell assigned Colonel Garfield the task of driving Confederate forces out of eastern Kentucky in November 1861. In December, he departed from Catlettsburg, Kentucky, with troops from Ohio, Kentucky, and western Virgina. On January 6, 1862, Garfield's cavalry met the Confederates at Jenny's Creek. Garfield deceived the Confederates into thinking that they were outnumbered, when in fact they were not. The Confederates withdrew and Garfield attacked on January 9, 1862. At the end of the day's fighting the Confederates retreated, but Garfield did not pursue them, opting instead to withdraw to Prestonsburg so he could resupply his men. His victory brought him early recognition and he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general on January 11.
Garfield later commanded the 20th Brigade of Ohio under Buell at the Battle of Shiloh, where he led troops in an attempt to reinforce Major General Ulysses S. Grant, after a surprise attack by Confederate General Albert S. Johnston. He then served in the Siege of Corinth, where he assisted in the pursuit of Confederates in retreat. Garfield was critical of the overly cautious Major General Henry W. Halleck, who allowed the escape of General P. G. T. Beauregard and his troops.
In the summer of 1862 Garfield's experienced health problem, including jaundice and significant weight loss. He was forced to return home but returned to duty that autumn and served on the Court-martial of Fitz John Porter. Garfield was then sent to Washington to receive further orders. It was at this time that it is alleged that Garfield had an extra-marital affair.
In the spring of 1863, Garfield returned to the field as Chief of Staff for William Rosecrans, commander of the Army of the Cumberland. Garfield and Rosecrans got along well, as both were well-read and well-educated. Garfield designed a campaign designed to pursue and then trap Confederate General Braxton Bragg in Tullahoma. The plan almost worked, but Bragg retreated toward Chattanooga. Rosecrans stalled his army and made repeated requests for more troops and supplies over Garfield's objection. Garfield planned a cavalry raid behind Bragg's line, but the raid failed, due to poor execution and bad weather.
At the Battle of Chickamauga, Rosecrans' believed that the battle was lost when the enemy broke through a gap in his line, but Garfield rode across Missionary Ridge to survey the Union status. Garfield sent a telegram to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton asking for reinforcements to avoid annihilation. Some 20,000 troops were sent to Chattanooga by rail within nine days. Rosecrans was replaced by General George H. Thomas. Garfield was issued orders to report to Washington, where he was promoted to major general. Garfield had been elected to Congress in Ohio's 19th Congressional District in October 1862, while he was serving in the army. Abraham Lincoln convinced Garfield to take his seat in Congress and Garfield resigned his commission.
In Congress Garfield became a staunch supporter of what he termed "honest money", i.e. money backed by a gold standard. He opposed the "greenback. He served on Schenck's Military Affairs Committee, and he supported the need for a military draft. He voted to terminate the practice of commutation (a system in which men could buy their way out of service). He was one of these who led the way for the passage of an aggressive conscription bill which excluded commutation.
Garfield, aligned with the Radical Republicans on many issues. He favored the abolition of slavery and believed that the leaders of the rebellion had forfeited their constitutional rights. He supported the confiscation of southern plantations as well as exile or execution of rebellion leaders as a means to ensure the end of slavery. He spoke of the government's obligation to "secure equal justice to all loyal persons, without regard to color."
In the 1864 Congressional election, Garfield was re-elected and he too his family with him to live in Washington. Garfield dabbled in land speculation, but met with limited success. He made some money from an oil exploration investment and he resumed the practice of law in 1865 as a means to earning more money.
Following Lincoln's assassination, Garfield took on the role of peacemaker between Congress and Andrew Johnson. But when Johnson's veto terminated the Freedmen's Bureau, Garfield rejoined the Radical Republicans. Garfield was placed on the House Ways and Means Committee, where he continued his opposition to the greenback. He favored the tariff, when it served to protect his district's products. He was re-elected in 1866. He served as chairman of the Military Affairs Committee, and considered the reorganization and reduction of the armed forces. Garfield supported articles of impeachment against President Andrew Johnson over charges that he violated the Tenure of Office Act by removing Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. Garfield was absent for the actual vote due to legal work.
In 1868 Garfield was re-elected by a 2 to 1 margin. Garfield harbored some resentment against new President Ulysses Grant over Grant's dismissal of General Rosecrans. He was appointed chair of the Banking and Currency Committee and he successfully sponsored a bill to establish a Department of Education. In September 1870 Garfield was chairman of a Congressional committee investigating the Black Friday Gold Panic scandal. Garfield blamed the fluctuating greenback for causing the greed and speculation that led to the scandal. Garfield's committee investigated President Grant's wife Julia's financial records, increasing tensions between Grant and Garfield.
Garfield won re-election in 1870. He was appointed Chairman of the Appropriations Committee. Garfield opposed land grants to expanding railroads to be an unjust practice, as well as monopolistic practices by corporations and the power sought by labor unions. He also supported civil service reform. Garfield's district was redrawn to his advantage and he was re-elected in 1872. In 1872, he was one of a number of Congressmen involved in the alleged Crédit Mobilier of America scandal. The principals of the Union Pacific Railroad formed Crédit Mobilier of America and issued stock. Congressman Oakes Ames testified that Garfield had purchased 10 shares of Crédit Mobiler stock for $1000, but he had returned the stock to the seller. The scandal did not imperil his political career severely. His Appropriation Committee recommended an increase in Congressional and Presidential salaries., which Garfield voted for, even though he opposed. His vote hurt him politically, and he returned his own salary increase to the U.S. Treasury.
In the 1874 campaign, an issue arose about another questionable transaction on Garfield's part. A paving contractor for Washington, D.C., named DeGolyer McClelland contributions of $90,000 to congressional member, including $5,000 to Garfield. Garfield claimed that this was a legal fee for legitimate work done for the company. In spite f this, Garfield re-election, though by a smaller margin than in the past. The Democrats assumed control of Congress in the 1874 election for the first time in 20 years. As the 1876 Presidential election approached, Garfield supported the candidacy of his House Speaker, James G. Blaine. When the party nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, Garfield immediately endorsed his fellow Ohioan. He won re-election with 60% of the vote. The victory was marred by personal tragedy as Garfield's youngest child Neddie suddenly fell ill with whooping cough and died.
In the disputed election of 1876, Grant asked Garfield to serve as an observer in the recount in Louisiana. Garfield's report of voter intimidation by Democratic "rifle clubs" gave reason for a challenge of the election results. Congress then passed a bill establishing the Electoral Commission to decided the outcome of the election. Garfield was appointed as a member of the commission. Hayes emerged the victor by a Commission vote of 8 to 7. James G. Blaine moved from the House to the United States Senate, and Garfield became the minority Republican House Leader.
Garfield continued to serve in congress and was re-elected for the final time in 1878. When the Ohio off-year campaign of 1879 approached, Garfield sought the U. S. Senate seat for Ohio, vacated by John Sherman. A Republican victory in the Ohio legislature was necessary, and what that occurred, Garfield was elected to the Senate by acclamation. His term was supposed to be begin in 1880.
In early 1880 Garfield endorsed John Sherman for the party's Presidential nomination in exchange for Sherman's earlier support of Garfield for the Senate. At the outset of the Republican convention, a deadlock ensued between supporters of former President Grant, James G. Blaine, and John Sherman. Delegates began to look to Garfield as an acceptable compromise choice. On the 34th ballot, Wisconsin began the break to Garfield and just two ballots later Garfield won the 1880 Republican Nomination for the Presidency. To obtain Republican Stalwart support for the ticket, former New York customs collector Chester A. Arthur was chosen as the vice-presidential nominee and Garfield's running mate.
Garfield traveled to New York to bring the party's warring factions together in what was called the "New York Conference". Garfield was able to mend part fences. One issue in the election of 1880 was Chinese immigration. Those in the West, particularly California, were opposed to Chinese immigration, while easterners were in favor of it. Democrats widely published a letter, allegedly signed by Garfield, which favored Chinese immigration, though the letter was likely a forgery. The issue proved to be of little consequence as Garfield defeated the Democratic candidate Winfield Scott Hancock by 214 electoral votes to 155. The popular vote was much closer. Garfield just over 7,000 more votes than his opponent out of more than 8.89 million cast. He became the only man ever to be elected to the Presidency directly from the House of Representatives and for a short period of time he was a sitting Representative, Senator-elect, and President-elect.
Garfield had planned on pursuing a program of civil service reform. But just four months into his presidency Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, a deranged political office seeker, on July 2, 1881. Garfield lived for 80 days after he was shot, but was unable to govern. Garfield's persistent call for civil service reform would later be fulfilled with the passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, enacted by Congress and signed by President Chester A. Arthur in 1883.