Presidents and War: Bill Clinton and Operation Uphold Democracy
They called it "Operation Uphold Democracy" and it was a military intervention whose purpose was to remove the military regime installed by the 1991 Haitian coup d'état that overthrew Haiti's elected President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. It operated under the authority of United Nations Security Council Resolution 940 passed on July 31, 1994.
The coup had taken place on September 29, 1991. President Jean-Bertrand Aristide had been elected eight months earlier in the 1990-91 Haitian general election. Aristide was a populist Roman Catholic priest who was a candidate for the National Front for Change and Democracy (FCND) Party. He was one of the only church figures to speak out against repression during the time when Haitian dictator Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier was in power. His his populist Lavalas movement (loosely translated as "the flood")called for the use of legislation and popular mobilization for economic reform, an end to corruption, and justice for the victims of the Haitian military. In the election he received the majority of the vote, with 67.5%.
But even with such strong popular support, Aristide's transition was not an easy one. He was seen as a threat to the power of some of the Haitian elite, especially those who supported the Duvalier family dictatorship. His main opposition was from the Haitian army, as he attempted to enforce constitutional laws that had not previously been followed. This included the separation of the police from the army and its subsequent placement under the Ministry of Justice. He also called for the trial of military abuses against citizens by the military, to be tried in civilian courts.
The coup began on the night of September 28, 1991, with most of the action taking place the following day. Haitian military officers led by Army General Raoul Cédras, Army Chief of Staff Philippe Biamby and Chief of the National Police, Michel François. Aristide likely would have been killed, but for the intervention of some foreign diplomats. Instead, he was deported to France in exile. Cédras announced the success of the coup to the nation the following night (September 30th) at 11 p.m. via television. Personnel at a number of army bases and police stations mutinied and aligning themselves with Cédras. At daybreak on the 29th, soldiers had fired on Aristide's residence and his armored personnel carrier as he traveled to the National Palace. Soldiers took over the palace, captured Aristide and led him to army headquarters. There, Venezuelan, French, and US ambassadors successfully negotiated with coup leaders for Aristide's life. Aristide was forced into exile and flew to France, later visiting the United States and speaking before the United Nations.
The military began to attack pro-Aristide elected officials, as well as a number of neighborhood and community associations, trade unions, pro-democracy, students' and women's groups. Mass arrests and civilian deaths increased. In 1993, pro-democracy activist Antoine Izmery was assassinated. Around 250,000 people had fled the city of Port-au-Prince by December 1991. The military regime reduced freedom of the press. On the first day of the coup, at least 10 radio stations were destroyed or shut down. Radio personnel were arrested, tortured, and some where even executed.
The new regime's human rights abuses sparked a mass exodus of Haitian Nationals fleeing Haiti by boat. A tent camp was set up at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base for those who were picked up by the US Coast Guard. By February 4, 1992, more than 14,000 Haitian refugees had arrived at Guantanamo. The George H. W. Bush administration began repatriation of refugees on February 3, 1992.
International organizations such as the Organization of American States (OAS) and the United Nations condemned the coup and expressed their support for Aristide's regime. The OAS implemented a trade embargo in October 1991. On November 24, 1992, the UN adopted a resolution urging member states to impose a trade embargo.
A compromise known as the Governor's Island Agreement, was signed on July 3, 1993. It attempted to forge a compromise between Aristide and Cedras, offering to lift sanctions if Aristide was returned to power by October 30. The accord promised amnesty for coup leaders, and the establishment of a new Haitian police force. Sanctions were suspended for a time, following the appointment of a Prime Minister chosen by Aristide, but they were reimposed in October of 1993 because of renewed human rights violations by the military regime.
Initially, President George H. W. Bush went along the international community in denouncing the military coup and calling for the reinstatement of Aristide. Later, his administration back-tracked a bit by stating that the return of Aristide was not a requirement for the restoration of democracy. This resulted in a number of protests by Haitian-Americans.
The Clinton administration was more supportive of the restoration of Aristide. Large, pro-Aristide demonstrations in the United States, influenced President Bill Clinton, with the support of the United Nations, to call for the coup regime to step down.
On July 31, 1994, United Nations Security Council Resolution 940 authorized a United States-led multinational force under unified command and control to restore Aristide to office. The operation was called Operation Uphold Democracy. United States military forces were deployed in Haiti.
The operation began with a call for the United States and its allies to embark on a forced entry into Haiti. U.S. Navy, Coast Guard, and Air Force elements staged in Puerto Rico and southern Florida in preparation to support the airborne invasion of the island. The 1st Brigade of the 10th Mountain Division deployed to Haiti aboard USS America and USS Dwight D. Eisenhower. The operation was directed by Lieutenant General Hugh Shelton.
On September 16, 1994, as these forces prepared to invade, former President Jimmy Carter, U.S. Senator Sam Nunn and retired Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell led a diplomatic mission to persuade the leaders of Haiti to step down and allow the elected officials to return to power. The main leader holding power was General Cédras. General Powell had personal relationship with Cédras, from when Cédras was a student in the School of the Americas as a young officer. Negotiations took place for approximately two weeks.
Despite this diplomatic effort, and its accompanying threat of force, negotiations reached a stalemate. General Cédras refused to concede to the legitimacy of the democratic elections. As a final attempt to force Cédras to step down without violence, the delegation provided him with a video feed of the 82nd Airborne Division's aircraft being loaded with troops. He assumed he was watching a live feed, but he was in fact viewing a video made more than 2 hours earlier. The lead elements of the 3,900-strong paratrooper force had already launched from Fort Bragg, North Carolina and were currently over the Atlantic Ocean. The delegation issued a final ultimatum to the dictator. He was given the choice of either recognizing the election results for the election of Aristide and quietly retire, or continue to deny the election's outcome, in which case the U.S. would forcibly take control of his country, as had occurred in Grenada and Panama. Finally, General Cédras gave in.
Evem after Cédras's capitulation was made, it was not immediately followed by other members of the junta. As a result, U.S. forces landed in Haiti and their objective now became severing the junta leadership without provoking a panic. General Shelton negotiated a turnover of command from Cédras to Major General Jean-Claude Duperval, who in turn promoted figures acceptable to Aristide into high government positions. Shelton determined to reform the organization incrementally. This strategy proved unsatsifactory to many Haitians, who had hoped that the U.S. would exact retribution from members of the junta. President Aristide called for the populace to remain calm until his return.
On September 20, U.S. Army soldiers in Port-au-Prince stood by while a protesting crowd was violently dispersed by the Haitian police, resulting in a civilian death. Many Haitians protested and many in the U.S. military were unsatisfied with the state of affairs. The U.S. Army soon changed its rules of engagement. Shelton sent Colonel Michael Sullivan, commander of the 16th Military Police Brigade, to Port-au-Prince Police Chief Colonel Michel Francois with the message that assaults on the populace would stop or Francois would be held personally accountable.
The U.S. Marines who occupied Haiti's second largest city, Cap Haitien, began foot patrols on arrival. A Marine unit clashed with Haitian police making "threatening gestures" and this resulted in a brief firefight on September 24th. Ten Haitian troops were killed, with no U.S. losses. The incident helped establish U.S. authority in the public's mind, and generated enthusiastic popular support.
On September 29, a terrorist hurled a grenade into a crowd at a ceremony marking the reinstallation of popular Port-au-Prince mayor, Evans Paul. The terrorist was apprehended by the Marines the next day.
Cédras's capitulation resulted in the 100-plus aircraft carrying the 82nd Airborne Division being either turned around in mid-air or unloaded before they had a chance to take off. The military mission changed from a combat operation to a peacekeeping operation. Teams were deployed throughout the country to establish order and provide humanitarian services. The United States Coast Guard played a significant role in the operation, providing command, control and communications services.
Jean Bertrand Aristide returned to Haiti in October 1994 after 3 years of forced exile. Operation Uphold Democracy officially ended on March 31, 1995, when it was replaced by the United Nations Mission in Haiti (UNMIH). President Clinton and Haitian President Jean Bertrand Aristide presided over the change of authority ceremony. From March 1995 until March 1996, 2,400 U.S. personnel from the original Operation Uphold Democracy remained as a UNMIH-commanded support group under the aegis of Operation New Horizons. A large contingent of U.S. troops participated as peacekeepers in the UNMIH until 1996. U.N. forces remained under various missions in Haiti from 1995 through 2000.
The coup had taken place on September 29, 1991. President Jean-Bertrand Aristide had been elected eight months earlier in the 1990-91 Haitian general election. Aristide was a populist Roman Catholic priest who was a candidate for the National Front for Change and Democracy (FCND) Party. He was one of the only church figures to speak out against repression during the time when Haitian dictator Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier was in power. His his populist Lavalas movement (loosely translated as "the flood")called for the use of legislation and popular mobilization for economic reform, an end to corruption, and justice for the victims of the Haitian military. In the election he received the majority of the vote, with 67.5%.
But even with such strong popular support, Aristide's transition was not an easy one. He was seen as a threat to the power of some of the Haitian elite, especially those who supported the Duvalier family dictatorship. His main opposition was from the Haitian army, as he attempted to enforce constitutional laws that had not previously been followed. This included the separation of the police from the army and its subsequent placement under the Ministry of Justice. He also called for the trial of military abuses against citizens by the military, to be tried in civilian courts.
The coup began on the night of September 28, 1991, with most of the action taking place the following day. Haitian military officers led by Army General Raoul Cédras, Army Chief of Staff Philippe Biamby and Chief of the National Police, Michel François. Aristide likely would have been killed, but for the intervention of some foreign diplomats. Instead, he was deported to France in exile. Cédras announced the success of the coup to the nation the following night (September 30th) at 11 p.m. via television. Personnel at a number of army bases and police stations mutinied and aligning themselves with Cédras. At daybreak on the 29th, soldiers had fired on Aristide's residence and his armored personnel carrier as he traveled to the National Palace. Soldiers took over the palace, captured Aristide and led him to army headquarters. There, Venezuelan, French, and US ambassadors successfully negotiated with coup leaders for Aristide's life. Aristide was forced into exile and flew to France, later visiting the United States and speaking before the United Nations.
The military began to attack pro-Aristide elected officials, as well as a number of neighborhood and community associations, trade unions, pro-democracy, students' and women's groups. Mass arrests and civilian deaths increased. In 1993, pro-democracy activist Antoine Izmery was assassinated. Around 250,000 people had fled the city of Port-au-Prince by December 1991. The military regime reduced freedom of the press. On the first day of the coup, at least 10 radio stations were destroyed or shut down. Radio personnel were arrested, tortured, and some where even executed.
The new regime's human rights abuses sparked a mass exodus of Haitian Nationals fleeing Haiti by boat. A tent camp was set up at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base for those who were picked up by the US Coast Guard. By February 4, 1992, more than 14,000 Haitian refugees had arrived at Guantanamo. The George H. W. Bush administration began repatriation of refugees on February 3, 1992.
International organizations such as the Organization of American States (OAS) and the United Nations condemned the coup and expressed their support for Aristide's regime. The OAS implemented a trade embargo in October 1991. On November 24, 1992, the UN adopted a resolution urging member states to impose a trade embargo.
A compromise known as the Governor's Island Agreement, was signed on July 3, 1993. It attempted to forge a compromise between Aristide and Cedras, offering to lift sanctions if Aristide was returned to power by October 30. The accord promised amnesty for coup leaders, and the establishment of a new Haitian police force. Sanctions were suspended for a time, following the appointment of a Prime Minister chosen by Aristide, but they were reimposed in October of 1993 because of renewed human rights violations by the military regime.
Initially, President George H. W. Bush went along the international community in denouncing the military coup and calling for the reinstatement of Aristide. Later, his administration back-tracked a bit by stating that the return of Aristide was not a requirement for the restoration of democracy. This resulted in a number of protests by Haitian-Americans.
The Clinton administration was more supportive of the restoration of Aristide. Large, pro-Aristide demonstrations in the United States, influenced President Bill Clinton, with the support of the United Nations, to call for the coup regime to step down.
On July 31, 1994, United Nations Security Council Resolution 940 authorized a United States-led multinational force under unified command and control to restore Aristide to office. The operation was called Operation Uphold Democracy. United States military forces were deployed in Haiti.
The operation began with a call for the United States and its allies to embark on a forced entry into Haiti. U.S. Navy, Coast Guard, and Air Force elements staged in Puerto Rico and southern Florida in preparation to support the airborne invasion of the island. The 1st Brigade of the 10th Mountain Division deployed to Haiti aboard USS America and USS Dwight D. Eisenhower. The operation was directed by Lieutenant General Hugh Shelton.
On September 16, 1994, as these forces prepared to invade, former President Jimmy Carter, U.S. Senator Sam Nunn and retired Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell led a diplomatic mission to persuade the leaders of Haiti to step down and allow the elected officials to return to power. The main leader holding power was General Cédras. General Powell had personal relationship with Cédras, from when Cédras was a student in the School of the Americas as a young officer. Negotiations took place for approximately two weeks.
Despite this diplomatic effort, and its accompanying threat of force, negotiations reached a stalemate. General Cédras refused to concede to the legitimacy of the democratic elections. As a final attempt to force Cédras to step down without violence, the delegation provided him with a video feed of the 82nd Airborne Division's aircraft being loaded with troops. He assumed he was watching a live feed, but he was in fact viewing a video made more than 2 hours earlier. The lead elements of the 3,900-strong paratrooper force had already launched from Fort Bragg, North Carolina and were currently over the Atlantic Ocean. The delegation issued a final ultimatum to the dictator. He was given the choice of either recognizing the election results for the election of Aristide and quietly retire, or continue to deny the election's outcome, in which case the U.S. would forcibly take control of his country, as had occurred in Grenada and Panama. Finally, General Cédras gave in.
Evem after Cédras's capitulation was made, it was not immediately followed by other members of the junta. As a result, U.S. forces landed in Haiti and their objective now became severing the junta leadership without provoking a panic. General Shelton negotiated a turnover of command from Cédras to Major General Jean-Claude Duperval, who in turn promoted figures acceptable to Aristide into high government positions. Shelton determined to reform the organization incrementally. This strategy proved unsatsifactory to many Haitians, who had hoped that the U.S. would exact retribution from members of the junta. President Aristide called for the populace to remain calm until his return.
On September 20, U.S. Army soldiers in Port-au-Prince stood by while a protesting crowd was violently dispersed by the Haitian police, resulting in a civilian death. Many Haitians protested and many in the U.S. military were unsatisfied with the state of affairs. The U.S. Army soon changed its rules of engagement. Shelton sent Colonel Michael Sullivan, commander of the 16th Military Police Brigade, to Port-au-Prince Police Chief Colonel Michel Francois with the message that assaults on the populace would stop or Francois would be held personally accountable.
The U.S. Marines who occupied Haiti's second largest city, Cap Haitien, began foot patrols on arrival. A Marine unit clashed with Haitian police making "threatening gestures" and this resulted in a brief firefight on September 24th. Ten Haitian troops were killed, with no U.S. losses. The incident helped establish U.S. authority in the public's mind, and generated enthusiastic popular support.
On September 29, a terrorist hurled a grenade into a crowd at a ceremony marking the reinstallation of popular Port-au-Prince mayor, Evans Paul. The terrorist was apprehended by the Marines the next day.
Cédras's capitulation resulted in the 100-plus aircraft carrying the 82nd Airborne Division being either turned around in mid-air or unloaded before they had a chance to take off. The military mission changed from a combat operation to a peacekeeping operation. Teams were deployed throughout the country to establish order and provide humanitarian services. The United States Coast Guard played a significant role in the operation, providing command, control and communications services.
Jean Bertrand Aristide returned to Haiti in October 1994 after 3 years of forced exile. Operation Uphold Democracy officially ended on March 31, 1995, when it was replaced by the United Nations Mission in Haiti (UNMIH). President Clinton and Haitian President Jean Bertrand Aristide presided over the change of authority ceremony. From March 1995 until March 1996, 2,400 U.S. personnel from the original Operation Uphold Democracy remained as a UNMIH-commanded support group under the aegis of Operation New Horizons. A large contingent of U.S. troops participated as peacekeepers in the UNMIH until 1996. U.N. forces remained under various missions in Haiti from 1995 through 2000.