Presidents and War: Chester Alan Arthur and the Egyptian Expedition of 1882
In the years following the Civil War, American naval power declined significantly. The US Navy shrunk from nearly 700 vessels to just 52, and most of those were obsolete. In the time between the Civil War and the Presidency of James Garfield , the nation's military efforts had mainly been focused on land battles with Native Americans. The decline in American naval power concerned many in Congress, and when Chester Alan Arthur became president following the death of James Garfield, the state of the navy concerned him as well. In his first annual address to the nation in 1881, Arthur called on Congress to provide for a stronger navy. Garfield's Secretary of the Navy, William E. Chandler, appointed an advisory board to prepare a report on modernization of the fleet. Based on the the recommendations in that report, Congress appropriated funds for an improved navy and Arthur signed the bill into law. It called for the construction of three steel protected cruisers (named Atlanta, Boston, and Chicago) and an armed steel dispatch-steamer (named Dolphin). They were collectively known as the ABCD Ships or the Squadron of Evolution. Arthur gave his full support to Chandler, who proved to be a strong Navy Secretary. Chandler got rid of Navys officers who supported antiquated wood-and-canvas ships and he scrapped old vessels whose repair costs exceeded their value.
Congress also approved funds to rebuild four monitors (named Puritan, Amphitrite, Monadnock, and Terror.) These ships had been awaiting repairs since 1877. Arthur believed that a strengthened navy would not only increase the country's security but also enhance international respect of the nation.
In 1882, when Democrats regained control of Congess, they opposed the "New Navy" projects and refused to appropriate funds for seven more steel warships. But even without the additional ships, the state of the Navy improved, though most of these ships would not enter service until after the end of Arthur's presidency.
One of the tests of the Navy whih arose during Arthur's time in office concerned an incident known as the Egyptian Expedition of 1882. In 1882, war broke out in Egypt in a conflict known as the Anglo-Egyptian War. In 1881, an Egyptian army officer named Ahmed ‘Urabi (also known as Arabi Pasha), mutinied and initiated a coup against Tewfik Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan. The dispute arose overdisparities in pay between Egyptians and Europeans from the government, as well as other grievances. In January 1882 the British and French governments declaring their recognition of the Khedive as the lawful authority and on May 20, British and French warships arrived off the coast of Alexandria, intent on restoring the Khedive to power by this show of force. On June 11, an anti-Christian riot occurred in Alexandria that killed 50 Europeans. ‘Urabi ordered his forces to put down the riot, but Europeans fled the city and ‘Urabi's army began fortifying the town. The French fleet was recalled to France. A British ultimatum to restore power to the Khedive was rejected. In response British warships began an eleven hour bombardment of Alexandria on July 11.
Arthur was advised of the threat to American citizens living in Alexandria during the war. In order to protect American citizens and their property within the city, he sent three United States Navy ships to Egypt with orders to observe the conflict offshore and make a landing if necessary. Following the British bombardment, a force of American marines and sailors landed and assisted in fire fighting and guarding the American consulate. The fleet was commanded by Rear Admiral James W. Nicholson. He was directed to lead the expedition in the USS Lancaster.
Nicholson arrived at Alexandria on June 27, 1882. He was later joined by the gunboat USS Nipsic on July 1 and the corvette USS Quinnebaug on July 12. The British bombardment did not begin until July 11, after the French had refused to participate. The Americans were informed by the British of their intentions so Rear Admiral Nicholson was able to get word to the United States citizens within the city of a pending attack.
When the engagement began, the British started shooting at the various forts under the command of 'Orabi. The Egyptians defended the city, striking the British ships several times, but eventually the fortifications were badly damaged and nullified over the course of two days. During the bombardment, the Americans opened their ships up to all refugees from the city who needed shelter or medical treatment, irrespective of their nationality.
By July 14, the attack was over but Alexandria was burning. What was left of Urabi's rebels began attacking foreign residents, including Americans. In response Nicholson decided to send a landing party ashore. Captain Henry C. Cochrane of the Marine Corps, and two lieutenants, were assigned to command a force of seventy marines and fifty-seven sailors with orders to occupy the American consulate, patrol the city, and fight the spreading fires which were ravaging the European section of Alexandria. The landing party was the first contingent of foreign troops to enter the city center after the bombardment. They were later joined by an occupation force 4,000 British troops as well as troops from other nations. By July 20, conditions in the city had largely improved and at that time most of the marines and sailors were withdrawn except for a small force from USS Quinnebaug commanded by Lieutenant Frank L. Denny. Those troops left the city on July 24.
The war between the British and 'Urabi continued. ‘Urabi declared war on the United Kingdom and initiated conscription.
The British army launched an, hoping to reach Cairo through Alexandria. They determined that this would not be feasable because Egyptian defences were too strong. In August, a British army of over 40,000, commanded by Garnet Wolseley, invaded the Suez Canal Zone. He was authorised to destroy 'Urabi's forces and clear the country of all other rebels.
On August 5, 1882 an Egyptian army, headed by'Urabi met British forces headed by Sir Archibald Alison at the Battle of Kafr El Dawwar position. Though referred to as a battle, this was really a reconnaissance, never intended as a serious assault on the Egyptian lines. The British abandoned any thoughts of reaching Cairo from the north, and shifted their base of operations to Ismailia instead. Wolseley arrived at Alexandria on August 15 and immediately began to organize the movement of troops through the Suez Canal to Ismailia. Ismailia was occupied on August 20 without resistance.
A small British force pushed along the Sweet Water Canal to the Kassassin lock, arriving on August 26, where they met the enemy. Heavily outnumbered the two battalions held their ground until some heavy cavalry arrived. The British forced ‘Urabi to fall back 5 miles, with his army suffering heavy casualties.
The main body of the British army moved up to Kassassin, planning for the battle at Tell El Kebir. On September 12, the British army marched to battle. The following day ‘Urabi redeployed his troops to defend Cairo against Wolseley. His main force dug in at Tell El Kebir, north of the railway and the Sweet Water Canal, both of which linked Cairo to Ismailia on the Suez Canal. Attacking under cover of darkness, Wolseley sent his force to approach the position by night and attacked frontally at dawn, achieving the element of surprise. The three battalions arrived in the enemy trenches all together and with little loss, resulting in a decisive victory for the British. Only 57 troops were reported as casualties, while approximately two thousand Egyptians were killed. More British died from heatstroke than from enemy action. ‘Urabi's forces were routed, and British cavalry pursued them and captured Cairo, which was undefended.
Power was then restored to the Khedive. The majority of the British army went to Alexandria and took ship for home, leaving, from November, just an army of occupation. British Prime Minister William Gladstone wanted to put ‘Urabi on trial and execute him. Perhaps fearing further incitement of the Egyptian populace, ‘Urabi admitted to rebellion and was sent into exile. British troops continued to occupy Egypt until the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1922 and Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936, returning gradual control back to the government of Egypt.
Congress also approved funds to rebuild four monitors (named Puritan, Amphitrite, Monadnock, and Terror.) These ships had been awaiting repairs since 1877. Arthur believed that a strengthened navy would not only increase the country's security but also enhance international respect of the nation.
In 1882, when Democrats regained control of Congess, they opposed the "New Navy" projects and refused to appropriate funds for seven more steel warships. But even without the additional ships, the state of the Navy improved, though most of these ships would not enter service until after the end of Arthur's presidency.
One of the tests of the Navy whih arose during Arthur's time in office concerned an incident known as the Egyptian Expedition of 1882. In 1882, war broke out in Egypt in a conflict known as the Anglo-Egyptian War. In 1881, an Egyptian army officer named Ahmed ‘Urabi (also known as Arabi Pasha), mutinied and initiated a coup against Tewfik Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan. The dispute arose overdisparities in pay between Egyptians and Europeans from the government, as well as other grievances. In January 1882 the British and French governments declaring their recognition of the Khedive as the lawful authority and on May 20, British and French warships arrived off the coast of Alexandria, intent on restoring the Khedive to power by this show of force. On June 11, an anti-Christian riot occurred in Alexandria that killed 50 Europeans. ‘Urabi ordered his forces to put down the riot, but Europeans fled the city and ‘Urabi's army began fortifying the town. The French fleet was recalled to France. A British ultimatum to restore power to the Khedive was rejected. In response British warships began an eleven hour bombardment of Alexandria on July 11.
Arthur was advised of the threat to American citizens living in Alexandria during the war. In order to protect American citizens and their property within the city, he sent three United States Navy ships to Egypt with orders to observe the conflict offshore and make a landing if necessary. Following the British bombardment, a force of American marines and sailors landed and assisted in fire fighting and guarding the American consulate. The fleet was commanded by Rear Admiral James W. Nicholson. He was directed to lead the expedition in the USS Lancaster.
Nicholson arrived at Alexandria on June 27, 1882. He was later joined by the gunboat USS Nipsic on July 1 and the corvette USS Quinnebaug on July 12. The British bombardment did not begin until July 11, after the French had refused to participate. The Americans were informed by the British of their intentions so Rear Admiral Nicholson was able to get word to the United States citizens within the city of a pending attack.
When the engagement began, the British started shooting at the various forts under the command of 'Orabi. The Egyptians defended the city, striking the British ships several times, but eventually the fortifications were badly damaged and nullified over the course of two days. During the bombardment, the Americans opened their ships up to all refugees from the city who needed shelter or medical treatment, irrespective of their nationality.
By July 14, the attack was over but Alexandria was burning. What was left of Urabi's rebels began attacking foreign residents, including Americans. In response Nicholson decided to send a landing party ashore. Captain Henry C. Cochrane of the Marine Corps, and two lieutenants, were assigned to command a force of seventy marines and fifty-seven sailors with orders to occupy the American consulate, patrol the city, and fight the spreading fires which were ravaging the European section of Alexandria. The landing party was the first contingent of foreign troops to enter the city center after the bombardment. They were later joined by an occupation force 4,000 British troops as well as troops from other nations. By July 20, conditions in the city had largely improved and at that time most of the marines and sailors were withdrawn except for a small force from USS Quinnebaug commanded by Lieutenant Frank L. Denny. Those troops left the city on July 24.
The war between the British and 'Urabi continued. ‘Urabi declared war on the United Kingdom and initiated conscription.
The British army launched an, hoping to reach Cairo through Alexandria. They determined that this would not be feasable because Egyptian defences were too strong. In August, a British army of over 40,000, commanded by Garnet Wolseley, invaded the Suez Canal Zone. He was authorised to destroy 'Urabi's forces and clear the country of all other rebels.
On August 5, 1882 an Egyptian army, headed by'Urabi met British forces headed by Sir Archibald Alison at the Battle of Kafr El Dawwar position. Though referred to as a battle, this was really a reconnaissance, never intended as a serious assault on the Egyptian lines. The British abandoned any thoughts of reaching Cairo from the north, and shifted their base of operations to Ismailia instead. Wolseley arrived at Alexandria on August 15 and immediately began to organize the movement of troops through the Suez Canal to Ismailia. Ismailia was occupied on August 20 without resistance.
A small British force pushed along the Sweet Water Canal to the Kassassin lock, arriving on August 26, where they met the enemy. Heavily outnumbered the two battalions held their ground until some heavy cavalry arrived. The British forced ‘Urabi to fall back 5 miles, with his army suffering heavy casualties.
The main body of the British army moved up to Kassassin, planning for the battle at Tell El Kebir. On September 12, the British army marched to battle. The following day ‘Urabi redeployed his troops to defend Cairo against Wolseley. His main force dug in at Tell El Kebir, north of the railway and the Sweet Water Canal, both of which linked Cairo to Ismailia on the Suez Canal. Attacking under cover of darkness, Wolseley sent his force to approach the position by night and attacked frontally at dawn, achieving the element of surprise. The three battalions arrived in the enemy trenches all together and with little loss, resulting in a decisive victory for the British. Only 57 troops were reported as casualties, while approximately two thousand Egyptians were killed. More British died from heatstroke than from enemy action. ‘Urabi's forces were routed, and British cavalry pursued them and captured Cairo, which was undefended.
Power was then restored to the Khedive. The majority of the British army went to Alexandria and took ship for home, leaving, from November, just an army of occupation. British Prime Minister William Gladstone wanted to put ‘Urabi on trial and execute him. Perhaps fearing further incitement of the Egyptian populace, ‘Urabi admitted to rebellion and was sent into exile. British troops continued to occupy Egypt until the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1922 and Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936, returning gradual control back to the government of Egypt.