Black history month: On African History
OP: The following is the preface to an 8-volume history of Africa. I am posting it for this installment of Black History Month because it discusses, among other things, the myths
and prejudices that have long prevailed regarding the history of Africa.
-------------------------------------------------------
Preface
AMADOU-MAHTAR M ' B OW
Director-General of Unesco
For a long time, all kinds of myths and prejudices concealed the true history of Africa from the world at large. African societies were looked upon as
societies that could have no history. In spite of important work done by such pioneers as Leo Frobenius, Maurice Delafosse and Arturo Labriola,
as early as the first decades of this century, a great many non-African experts could not rid themselves of certain preconceptions and argued that the lack
of written sources and documents made it impossible to engage in any scientific study of such societies.
Although the Iliad and Odyssey were rightly regarded as essential sources for the history of ancient Greece, African oral tradition, the collective
memory of peoples which holds the thread of many events marking their lives, was rejected as worthless. In writing the history of a large part of
Africa, the only sources used were from outside the continent, and the final product gave a picture not so much of the paths actually taken by the
African peoples as of those that the authors thought they must have taken. Since the European Middle Ages were often used as a yardstick, modes of
production, social relations and political institutions were visualized only by reference to the European past.
In fact, there was a refusal to see Africans as the creators of original cultures which flowered and survived over the centuries in patterns of their
own making and which historians are unable to grasp unless they forgo their prejudices and rethink their approach.
Furthermore, the continent of Africa was hardly ever looked upon as a historical entity. On the contrary, emphasis was laid on everything likely
to lend credence to the idea that a split had existed, from time immemorial, between a 'white Africa' and a 'black Africa', each unaware of the
other's existence. The Sahara was often presented as an impenetrable space preventing any intermingling of ethnic groups and peoples or any
exchange of goods, beliefs, customs and ideas between the societies that had grown up on either side of the desert. Hermetic frontiers were
drawn between the civilizations of Ancient Egypt and Nubia and those of the peoples south of the Sahara.
It is true that the history of Africa north of the Sahara has been more closely linked with that of the Mediterranean basin than has the history of
sub-Saharan Africa, but it is now widely recognized that the various civilizations of the African continent, for all their differing languages and cultures,
represent, to a greater or lesser degree, the historical offshoots of a set of peoples and societies united by bonds centuries old.
Another phenomenon which did great disservice to the objective study of the African past was the appearance, with the slave trade and colonization, of
racial stereotypes which bred contempt and lack of understanding and became so deep-rooted that they distorted even the basic concepts of
historiography. From the time when the notions of 'white' and 'black' were used as generic labels by the colonialists, who were regarded as
superior, the colonized Africans had to struggle against both economic and psychological enslavement. Africans were identifiable by the colour of
their skin, they had become a kind of merchandise, they were earmarked for hard labour and eventually, in the minds of those dominating them, they
came to symbolize an imaginary and allegedly inferior Negro race. This pattern of spurious identification relegated the history of the African peoples
in many minds to the rank of ethno-history, in which appreciation of the historical and cultural facts was bound to be warped.
The situation has changed significantly since the end of the Second World War and in particular since the African countries became independent and
began to take an active part in the life of the international community and in the mutual exchanges that are its raison d'être. An increasing number of
historians has endeavoured to tackle the study of Africa with a more rigorous, objective and open-minded outlook by using - with all due
precautions - actual African sources. In exercising their right to take the historical initiative, Africans themselves have felt a deep-seated need to
re-establish the historical authenticity of their societies on solid foundations.
In this context, the importance of the eight-volume General History of Africa, which Unesco is publishing, speaks for itself.
The experts from many countries working on this project began by laying down the theoretical and methodological basis for the History. They have
been at pains to call in question the over-simplifications arising from a linear and restrictive conception of world history and to re-establish the true facts
wherever necessary and possible. They have endeavoured to highlight the historical data that give a clearer picture of the evolution of the different
peoples of Africa in their specific socio-cultural setting.
To tackle this huge task, made all the more complex and difficult by the vast range of sources and the fact that documents were widely scattered,
Unesco has had to proceed by stages. The first stage, from 1965 to 1969, was devoted to gathering documentation and planning the work.
Operational assignments were conducted in the field and included campaigns to collect oral traditions, the creation of regional documentation
centres for oral traditions, the collection of unpublished manuscripts in Arabic and Ajami (African languages written in Arabic script), the
compilation of archival inventories and the preparation of a Guide to the Sources of the History of Africa, culled from the archives and libraries of the
countries of Europe and later published in nine volumes. In addition, meetings were organized to enable experts from Africa and other continents
to discuss questions of methodology and lay down the broad lines for the project after careful examination of the available sources.
The second stage, which lasted from 1969 to 1971, was devoted to shaping the History and linking its different parts. The purpose of the
international meetings of experts held in Paris in 1969 and Addis Ababa in 1970 was to study and define the problems involved in drafting and
publishing the History: presentation in eight volumes, the principal edition in English, French and Arabic, translation into African languages such as
Kiswahili, Hausa, Fulani, Yoruba or Lingala, prospective versions in German, Russian, Portuguese, Spanish and Chinese, as well as abridged
editions designed for a wide African and international public.
The third stage has involved actual drafting and publication. This began with the appointment of the 39-member International Scientific Committee,
two-thirds African and one-third non-African, which assumes intellectual responsibility for the History.
The method used is interdisciplinary and is based on a multi-faceted approach and a wide variety of sources. The first among these is
archaeology, which holds many of the keys to the history of African cultures and civilizations. Thanks to archaeology, it is now acknowledged that
Africa was very probably the cradle of mankind and the scene - in the neolithic period - of one of the first technological revolutions in history.
Archaeology has also shown that Egypt was the setting for one of the most brilliant ancient civilizations of the world. But another very important
source is oral tradition, which, after being long despised, has now emerged as an invaluable instrument for discovering the history of Africa, making
it possible to follow the movements of its different peoples in both space and time, to understand the African vision of the world from the inside and
to grasp the original features of the values on which the cultures and institutions of the continent are based.
W e are indebted to the International Scientific Committee in charge of this General History of Africa, and to its Rapporteur and the editors and
authors of the various volumes and chapters, for having shed a new light on the African past in its authentic and all-encompassing form and for
having avoided any dogmatism in the study of essential issues. Among these issues we might cite: the slave trade, that 'endlessly bleeding wound',
which was responsible for one of the cruellest mass deportations in the history of mankind, which sapped the African continent of its life-blood
while contributing significantly to the economic and commercial expansion of Europe; colonization, with all the effects it had on population, economics,
psychology and culture; relations between Africa south of the Sahara and the Arab world; and, finally, the process of decolonization and nationbuilding
which mobilized the intelligence and passion of people still alive and sometimes still active today. All these issues have been broached with a
concern for honesty and rigour which is not the least of the History's merits. By taking stock of our knowledge of Africa, putting forward a variety of viewpoints
on African cultures and offering a new reading of history, the History has the signal advantage of showing up the light and shade and of openly
portraying the differences of opinion that may exist between scholars.
By demonstrating the inadequacy of the methodological approaches which have long been used in research on Africa, this History calls for a
new and careful study of the twofold problem areas of historiography and cultural identity, which are united by links of reciprocity. Like any
historical work of value, the History paves the way for a great deal of further research on a variety of topics.
It is for this reason that the International Scientific Committee, in close collaboration with Unesco, decided to embark on additional studies
in an attempt to go deeper into a number of issues which will permit a clearer understanding of certain aspects of the African past. The findings being
published in the series 'Unesco Studies and Documents - General History of Africa' will prove a useful supplement to the History, as will the works
planned on aspects of national or subregional history.
The General History sheds light both on the historical unity of Africa and also its relations with the other continents, particularly the Americas
and the Caribbean. For a long time, the creative manifestations of the descendants of Africans in the Americas were lumped together by some
historians as a heterogeneous collection of Africanisms. Needless to say, this is not the attitude of the authors of the History, in which the resistance
of the slaves shipped to America, the constant and massive participation of the descendants of Africans in the struggles for the initial independence
of America and in national liberation movements, are rightly perceived for what they were: vigorous assertions of identity, which helped forge the
universal concept of mankind. Although the phenomenon may vary in different places, it is now quite clear that ways of feeling, thinking, dreaming
and acting in certain nations of the western hemisphere have been marked by their African heritage. The cultural inheritance of Africa is visible
everywhere, from the southern United States to northern Brazil, across the Caribbean and on the Pacific seaboard. In certain places it even
underpins the cultural identity of some of the most important elements of the population.
The History also clearly brings out Africa's relations with southern Asia across the Indian Ocean and the African contributions to other civilizations
through mutual exchanges.
I am convinced that the efforts of the peoples of Africa to conquer or strengthen their independence, secure their development and assert their
cultural characteristics, must be rooted in historical awareness renewed, keenly felt and taken up by each succeeding generation.
My own background, the experience I gained as a teacher and as chairman, from the early days of independence, of the first commission set
up to reform history and geography curricula in some of the countries of West and Central Africa, taught me how necessary it was for the education
of young people and for the information of the public at large to have a history book produced by scholars with inside knowledge of the problems
and hopes of Africa and with the ability to apprehend the continent in its entirety.
For all these reasons, Unesco's goal will be to ensure that this General History of Africa is widely disseminated in a large number of languages and
is used as a basis for producing children's books, school textbooks and radio and television programmes. Young people, whether schoolchildren or
students, and adults in Africa and elsewhere will thus be able to form a truer picture of the African continent's past and the factors that explain
it, as well as a fairer understanding of its cultural heritage and its contribution to the general progress of mankind. The History should thus contribute
to improved international cooperation and stronger solidarity among peoples in their aspirations to justice, progress and peace. This is, at least,
my most cherished hope.
It remains for m e to express my deep gratitude to the members of the International Scientific Committee, the Rapporteur, the different volume
editors, the authors and all those who have collaborated in this tremendous undertaking. The work they have accomplished and the contribution
they have made plainly go to show how people from different backgrounds but all imbued with the same spirit of goodwill and enthusiasm in the
service of universal truth can, within the international framework provided by Unesco, bring to fruition a project of considerable scientific and
cultural import. My thanks also go to the organizations and governments whose generosity has made it possible for Unesco to publish
this History in different languages and thus ensure that it will have the worldwide impact it deserves and thereby serve the international
community as a whole.
SOURCE.
Some other sources on African history:
-'History of Africa': http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ab24
-'Africa.com': http://www.africa.com/countries/
-'Smithsonian Natural History: African Voices': http://www.mnh.si.edu/africanvoices/
-'African History on the Internet': http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/history.html
-'Animated Atlast of African History': http://www.brown.edu/Research/AAAH/
-'African and African Diaspora Studies' (McMaster University, Canada): http://www.humanities.mcmaster.ca/africanhistory/
-'The Story of Africa. African History from the Dawn of Time.': http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index.shtml
-'South African History Online': http://www.sahistory.org.za/
and prejudices that have long prevailed regarding the history of Africa.
-------------------------------------------------------
Preface
AMADOU-MAHTAR M ' B OW
Director-General of Unesco
For a long time, all kinds of myths and prejudices concealed the true history of Africa from the world at large. African societies were looked upon as
societies that could have no history. In spite of important work done by such pioneers as Leo Frobenius, Maurice Delafosse and Arturo Labriola,
as early as the first decades of this century, a great many non-African experts could not rid themselves of certain preconceptions and argued that the lack
of written sources and documents made it impossible to engage in any scientific study of such societies.
Although the Iliad and Odyssey were rightly regarded as essential sources for the history of ancient Greece, African oral tradition, the collective
memory of peoples which holds the thread of many events marking their lives, was rejected as worthless. In writing the history of a large part of
Africa, the only sources used were from outside the continent, and the final product gave a picture not so much of the paths actually taken by the
African peoples as of those that the authors thought they must have taken. Since the European Middle Ages were often used as a yardstick, modes of
production, social relations and political institutions were visualized only by reference to the European past.
In fact, there was a refusal to see Africans as the creators of original cultures which flowered and survived over the centuries in patterns of their
own making and which historians are unable to grasp unless they forgo their prejudices and rethink their approach.
Furthermore, the continent of Africa was hardly ever looked upon as a historical entity. On the contrary, emphasis was laid on everything likely
to lend credence to the idea that a split had existed, from time immemorial, between a 'white Africa' and a 'black Africa', each unaware of the
other's existence. The Sahara was often presented as an impenetrable space preventing any intermingling of ethnic groups and peoples or any
exchange of goods, beliefs, customs and ideas between the societies that had grown up on either side of the desert. Hermetic frontiers were
drawn between the civilizations of Ancient Egypt and Nubia and those of the peoples south of the Sahara.
It is true that the history of Africa north of the Sahara has been more closely linked with that of the Mediterranean basin than has the history of
sub-Saharan Africa, but it is now widely recognized that the various civilizations of the African continent, for all their differing languages and cultures,
represent, to a greater or lesser degree, the historical offshoots of a set of peoples and societies united by bonds centuries old.
Another phenomenon which did great disservice to the objective study of the African past was the appearance, with the slave trade and colonization, of
racial stereotypes which bred contempt and lack of understanding and became so deep-rooted that they distorted even the basic concepts of
historiography. From the time when the notions of 'white' and 'black' were used as generic labels by the colonialists, who were regarded as
superior, the colonized Africans had to struggle against both economic and psychological enslavement. Africans were identifiable by the colour of
their skin, they had become a kind of merchandise, they were earmarked for hard labour and eventually, in the minds of those dominating them, they
came to symbolize an imaginary and allegedly inferior Negro race. This pattern of spurious identification relegated the history of the African peoples
in many minds to the rank of ethno-history, in which appreciation of the historical and cultural facts was bound to be warped.
The situation has changed significantly since the end of the Second World War and in particular since the African countries became independent and
began to take an active part in the life of the international community and in the mutual exchanges that are its raison d'être. An increasing number of
historians has endeavoured to tackle the study of Africa with a more rigorous, objective and open-minded outlook by using - with all due
precautions - actual African sources. In exercising their right to take the historical initiative, Africans themselves have felt a deep-seated need to
re-establish the historical authenticity of their societies on solid foundations.
In this context, the importance of the eight-volume General History of Africa, which Unesco is publishing, speaks for itself.
The experts from many countries working on this project began by laying down the theoretical and methodological basis for the History. They have
been at pains to call in question the over-simplifications arising from a linear and restrictive conception of world history and to re-establish the true facts
wherever necessary and possible. They have endeavoured to highlight the historical data that give a clearer picture of the evolution of the different
peoples of Africa in their specific socio-cultural setting.
To tackle this huge task, made all the more complex and difficult by the vast range of sources and the fact that documents were widely scattered,
Unesco has had to proceed by stages. The first stage, from 1965 to 1969, was devoted to gathering documentation and planning the work.
Operational assignments were conducted in the field and included campaigns to collect oral traditions, the creation of regional documentation
centres for oral traditions, the collection of unpublished manuscripts in Arabic and Ajami (African languages written in Arabic script), the
compilation of archival inventories and the preparation of a Guide to the Sources of the History of Africa, culled from the archives and libraries of the
countries of Europe and later published in nine volumes. In addition, meetings were organized to enable experts from Africa and other continents
to discuss questions of methodology and lay down the broad lines for the project after careful examination of the available sources.
The second stage, which lasted from 1969 to 1971, was devoted to shaping the History and linking its different parts. The purpose of the
international meetings of experts held in Paris in 1969 and Addis Ababa in 1970 was to study and define the problems involved in drafting and
publishing the History: presentation in eight volumes, the principal edition in English, French and Arabic, translation into African languages such as
Kiswahili, Hausa, Fulani, Yoruba or Lingala, prospective versions in German, Russian, Portuguese, Spanish and Chinese, as well as abridged
editions designed for a wide African and international public.
The third stage has involved actual drafting and publication. This began with the appointment of the 39-member International Scientific Committee,
two-thirds African and one-third non-African, which assumes intellectual responsibility for the History.
The method used is interdisciplinary and is based on a multi-faceted approach and a wide variety of sources. The first among these is
archaeology, which holds many of the keys to the history of African cultures and civilizations. Thanks to archaeology, it is now acknowledged that
Africa was very probably the cradle of mankind and the scene - in the neolithic period - of one of the first technological revolutions in history.
Archaeology has also shown that Egypt was the setting for one of the most brilliant ancient civilizations of the world. But another very important
source is oral tradition, which, after being long despised, has now emerged as an invaluable instrument for discovering the history of Africa, making
it possible to follow the movements of its different peoples in both space and time, to understand the African vision of the world from the inside and
to grasp the original features of the values on which the cultures and institutions of the continent are based.
W e are indebted to the International Scientific Committee in charge of this General History of Africa, and to its Rapporteur and the editors and
authors of the various volumes and chapters, for having shed a new light on the African past in its authentic and all-encompassing form and for
having avoided any dogmatism in the study of essential issues. Among these issues we might cite: the slave trade, that 'endlessly bleeding wound',
which was responsible for one of the cruellest mass deportations in the history of mankind, which sapped the African continent of its life-blood
while contributing significantly to the economic and commercial expansion of Europe; colonization, with all the effects it had on population, economics,
psychology and culture; relations between Africa south of the Sahara and the Arab world; and, finally, the process of decolonization and nationbuilding
which mobilized the intelligence and passion of people still alive and sometimes still active today. All these issues have been broached with a
concern for honesty and rigour which is not the least of the History's merits. By taking stock of our knowledge of Africa, putting forward a variety of viewpoints
on African cultures and offering a new reading of history, the History has the signal advantage of showing up the light and shade and of openly
portraying the differences of opinion that may exist between scholars.
By demonstrating the inadequacy of the methodological approaches which have long been used in research on Africa, this History calls for a
new and careful study of the twofold problem areas of historiography and cultural identity, which are united by links of reciprocity. Like any
historical work of value, the History paves the way for a great deal of further research on a variety of topics.
It is for this reason that the International Scientific Committee, in close collaboration with Unesco, decided to embark on additional studies
in an attempt to go deeper into a number of issues which will permit a clearer understanding of certain aspects of the African past. The findings being
published in the series 'Unesco Studies and Documents - General History of Africa' will prove a useful supplement to the History, as will the works
planned on aspects of national or subregional history.
The General History sheds light both on the historical unity of Africa and also its relations with the other continents, particularly the Americas
and the Caribbean. For a long time, the creative manifestations of the descendants of Africans in the Americas were lumped together by some
historians as a heterogeneous collection of Africanisms. Needless to say, this is not the attitude of the authors of the History, in which the resistance
of the slaves shipped to America, the constant and massive participation of the descendants of Africans in the struggles for the initial independence
of America and in national liberation movements, are rightly perceived for what they were: vigorous assertions of identity, which helped forge the
universal concept of mankind. Although the phenomenon may vary in different places, it is now quite clear that ways of feeling, thinking, dreaming
and acting in certain nations of the western hemisphere have been marked by their African heritage. The cultural inheritance of Africa is visible
everywhere, from the southern United States to northern Brazil, across the Caribbean and on the Pacific seaboard. In certain places it even
underpins the cultural identity of some of the most important elements of the population.
The History also clearly brings out Africa's relations with southern Asia across the Indian Ocean and the African contributions to other civilizations
through mutual exchanges.
I am convinced that the efforts of the peoples of Africa to conquer or strengthen their independence, secure their development and assert their
cultural characteristics, must be rooted in historical awareness renewed, keenly felt and taken up by each succeeding generation.
My own background, the experience I gained as a teacher and as chairman, from the early days of independence, of the first commission set
up to reform history and geography curricula in some of the countries of West and Central Africa, taught me how necessary it was for the education
of young people and for the information of the public at large to have a history book produced by scholars with inside knowledge of the problems
and hopes of Africa and with the ability to apprehend the continent in its entirety.
For all these reasons, Unesco's goal will be to ensure that this General History of Africa is widely disseminated in a large number of languages and
is used as a basis for producing children's books, school textbooks and radio and television programmes. Young people, whether schoolchildren or
students, and adults in Africa and elsewhere will thus be able to form a truer picture of the African continent's past and the factors that explain
it, as well as a fairer understanding of its cultural heritage and its contribution to the general progress of mankind. The History should thus contribute
to improved international cooperation and stronger solidarity among peoples in their aspirations to justice, progress and peace. This is, at least,
my most cherished hope.
It remains for m e to express my deep gratitude to the members of the International Scientific Committee, the Rapporteur, the different volume
editors, the authors and all those who have collaborated in this tremendous undertaking. The work they have accomplished and the contribution
they have made plainly go to show how people from different backgrounds but all imbued with the same spirit of goodwill and enthusiasm in the
service of universal truth can, within the international framework provided by Unesco, bring to fruition a project of considerable scientific and
cultural import. My thanks also go to the organizations and governments whose generosity has made it possible for Unesco to publish
this History in different languages and thus ensure that it will have the worldwide impact it deserves and thereby serve the international
community as a whole.
SOURCE.
Some other sources on African history:
-'History of Africa': http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ab24
-'Africa.com': http://www.africa.com/countries/
-'Smithsonian Natural History: African Voices': http://www.mnh.si.edu/africanvoices/
-'African History on the Internet': http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/history.html
-'Animated Atlast of African History': http://www.brown.edu/Research/AAAH/
-'African and African Diaspora Studies' (McMaster University, Canada): http://www.humanities.mcmaster.ca/africanhistory/
-'The Story of Africa. African History from the Dawn of Time.': http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index.shtml
-'South African History Online': http://www.sahistory.org.za/