My Paper!
Well, I am finally getting around to posting my paper online from my trip to Mongolia. With this paper my journey comes to a complete close, and although I feel saddened by this thought I find it comforting as well. Now I can continue on and look forward to the next time I will be able to visit such a remarkable place as Mongolia. Again, I encourage everyone who wanders onto this small little journal to journey there at least once in their lifetime. It will truly be an experience to remember.
With that, I have attached my paper to the bottom of this post for those of you who expressed interest in what I had to say. So please enjoy, and have a good day everyone! (One last note, the two images I had I cannot put onto livejournal, if you wish to see them or host them for me please let me know. Thanks again!)
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Although Mongolia is not credited with many specific technological innovations, Mongolia has been unusually successful in inter-mixing the skills and special attributes of the many cultures that the Mongols encountered in the course of conquest or trade and out of that mix synthesizing something greater than the sum of its parts. This particular aspect of Mongolian culture implies the possibility that Mongolia has played a major role in the spread or beginnings of martial arts. My paper will test this hypothesis by examining the various forms, schools, and techniques of Asian martial arts currently practiced in contemporary Mongolia in order to discern any evidence of a unique historic indigenous Mongolian school of martial arts, if that school has survived to the present date and if Mongolia influenced martial arts in other nations.
For this purpose I define martial arts as separate from simple wrestling, as a style of combat that utilizes practiced styles and techniques to train an individual in the ability to defend his or herself adeptly against one or more attackers. Most styles contain hand to hand techniques such as kicks and punches, however, some compliment this training with weapons. Further, a martial art is not simply a method of self defense; there is also a mindset that must be obtained through the repetition of the movements within the techniques, which gives these skills an aesthetic and philosophical character.
Martial arts do not have any one specific point of origin and were probably developed separately and refined in many different places. However, according to oral tradition, one of the earliest influential figures in establishing martial arts in Asia was Siddhartha Gautama, more commonly known as the Buddha Shakyamuni. Born in what is today Nepal, he lived his entire life in India and is believed to have formed his own style of martial arts during the period of asceticism and meditation prior to his enlightenment. His teachings and ministry established Buddhism in India around the sixth century B.C. [2].
One of his disciples, Bodhidharma, transferred the techniques and idea of martial arts as well as Buddhism to China within a century, where it became known as kung-fu and was primarily practiced in the Buddhist temples of the Shaolin sect. Shaolin means “young forest.” Originally there were two main temples, one in northern China and the other in southern China. According to Colonel Hayangarvaa Sanjhuu of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, former Director of the Political Science Department at the Mongolian National Policy Academy and a martial art scholar, martial arts eventually spread into Mongolia from China and evolved into a school called bandi zoo [2]. Knowledge of martial arts, and various schools of martial arts, spread to Mongolia through itinerant Buddhist and Taoist monks. Traveling monks were a major vehicle of disseminating learning of all kinds all over Asia.
Monks were generally barred, by the tenets of their sect, from carrying conventional hand-weapons but did need some means of self-defense as they traveled around to preach. Martial arts were developed by various monasteries to equip their itinerant monks with self-defense skills. These monks carried long walking sticks, which could be used in self-defense with proper training. As they spread their religious ideas, they also spread their particular style of martial arts, and learned others.
There is no evidence that Mongolia was the original source of all martial arts and Mongolian sources interviewed all suggested an origin in China or India. But Genghis Khan’s empire spanned most of East Asia, half of Europe and parts of the Middle East and created avenues of communication that encouraged global intellectual exchange, including schools and techniques of martial arts. Monkh-Erdene of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, a practicing martial artist and weight lifter, said that Genghis Khan kept his soldiers in excellent physical condition, with regular training in archery, swordsmanship, horsemanship and hand-to-hand combat [3]. The Great Khan’s success in many campaigns obviously required well-trained and disciplined soldiers.
In response to Genghis Khan’s aggressive policies, nations in his path and nationalities incorporated into his empire were forced by circumstances to scramble to develop ways of defending themselves. At that time, martial arts were not popular or widely practiced for recreational or spiritual purposes, as they are today. In my analysis, these different styles of martial arts sprang up to combat the Mongol horde. Many Asian lands began to teach their soldiers martial arts to defend themselves against invasion and, once disarmed and absorbed into the Mongol empire, to defend themselves against the depredations of bandits and rogue bands of warriors.
Some lands were more successful than others. India repelled Mongolian invasions for hundreds of years, until descendants of the original Mongol conquerors, by this time converted to Islam, successfully invaded and occupied India under the name of Moghuls. Their empire lasted until 1858. Japan was invaded twice by the Mongols but the Mongol invaders were defeated by a fortuitously-timed typhoon, which the Japanese thought of at the time, and since, as a kamikaze, or “divine wind.” These storms destroyed almost all of the invading Mongolian fleet and army.
Mongolia governed an enormous empire. Free exchange of currency, goods, ideas, and religions were encouraged. Such freedom of movement in such a large empire would also result in the sharing of martial arts. Mongolia became a melting pot of different ideas and styles of martial arts that were allowed to be expressed and studied.
Essentially, I believe that while Mongolia was not the birthplace of martial arts, the Mongol Empire stimulated their development and fostered their dissemination. As the proverb tells us, “necessity is the mother of invention.” Genghis Khan’s aggressive foreign policy demanded that his neighbors try to create defenses or be swept up into the Mongolian Empire. Because of this stimulus, martial arts became much more popular and more and more refined in terms of techniques and weapons.
Further, once lands became part of the Mongolian Empire they had access to the rest of the empire’s knowledge and expertise in any given field, including that of martial arts. One possible example of exchange is the Chinese martial arts school called shuai-chiao, which means “competing to throw.” A main subtype of shuai-chiao still practiced today is called the “Mongolian school,” which would have been exported to China from Mongolia during the Yuan Dynasty (1279- 1368 A.D.). The Yuan Dynasty was formed when Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan’s grandson, successfully conquered China and established it as his domain. While there is no direct evidence beyond the oral tradition of contemporary shuai-chiao professional practitioners and the survival of a Mongolian subtype within their school, the author is confident that this hypothesis is plausible and could, in fact, explain the similarities among many forms of martial arts as well as their large burst in popularity following the period of the Mongol conquests.
At a cursory glance, Mongolian wrestling, called boke” in Mongolian, does not seem to be a martial art, or have many similarities with martial arts. Boke is a form of wrestling, with no lethal intent, whereas martial arts involve a kind of stylized combat, an actual battle between two individuals. Martial arts have distinct techniques and specialized movements whereas wrestling usually utilizes brute strength. However, in that respect, boke seems to deviate from conventional wrestling and shows some striking similarities to what people refer to as “martial arts.”
Boke has a series of complex rules, rituals, and traditions that certainly continue today to exhibit the structure and characteristics of what formerly may have originated as a martial art. As Batbayar Gelegjamts of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, a wrestler, says, there are three major rules that elegantly, yet simply, define Mongolian wrestling [1].
The first is that you cannot injure your opponent [1]. One may think that this would be difficult because in order to win a wrestler must throw his opponent to the ground, but there are many ways to force your opponent to the ground without hurting him. Even though this is a match of strength and spirit, both combatants should be able to walk away from their battle against each other.
The second rule is that you cannot be fighting for revenge [1]. Doing so could potentially violate the first rule of Mongolian wrestling and could seriously injure someone. Perhaps as a corollary to this rule is that, like many other martial arts, each wrestler must respect one another [1]. Honor is extremely important as well, so wrestlers must be able to set aside any personal opinions they have for their opponent and face them with a clear mind.
The third and final major rule of wrestling is that wrestlers cannot hit each other in certain areas, such as the groin [1]. Honor and respect fall into this rule as well; obviously, the ends do not justify the means in Mongolian wrestling. In order to win, a wrestler must best their opponent in strength and skill, not through underhanded tricks.
While these are the most important three rules in Mongolian wrestling, there are still others, such as a requirement of standardized uniforms. Each wrestler is required to wear a uniform, zodog shuudag in Mongolian, that consists of a frontless fitted long sleeved shirt, kept on the body by cords tied together on the bottom [1]. Outer Mongolia, the sovereign nation, also requires wrestlers to wear tight-fitting briefs, rather similar to a Speedo bathing suit, while Inner Mongolia, part of the Peoples’ Republic of China requires loose-fitting pants. Whether in Inner or Outer Mongolia wrestlers must also wear large boots, much like the ones that are worn with deels, Mongolia’s traditional garb, along with a traditional hat [1]. Figure 1, below, shows the uniform as worn by two Mongolian youths as they await the beginning of the boke portion of Naadam.
Figure 1. Two youths dressed in the boke uniform at the Naadam Festival in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
Boke is also considered one of the three “manly sports” in Mongolia, all celebrated in the annual Naadam Festival. The festival is Mongolia’s national day, centering around competitions that date back to the days of Genghis Khan. This past year, Naadam was held July 11-12 although some of the events began before the official start of the festivities. The three “manly sports” are archery, horseback riding and boke, coincidentally all skills that were essential to a highly mobile army and that history indicates were a standard part of military training
Archery and horseback riding have within living memory permitted females to participate in these competitions but boke remains a man-only sport, due to the heavy weight of tradition and the uniform. When asked about the uniforms, Batbayar told an old story that may be apocryphal, but does neatly account for the open front shirt. Briefly, the story says that long ago a woman won the Naadam boke competition, disguised as a man. Her father was a great wrestler and she knew all the techniques and was extremely strong. After she won and her gender was discovered, the uniform was modified so that that would not happen again [1].
These rules, in some aspects, resemble those of martial arts. All organized schools of martial arts demand self-discipline more than anything else from their practitioners. Focus and having a clear mind are two key attributes teachers demand of their students in martial arts. Having a clear mind would make it impossible for someone to fight for the single purpose of exacting revenge. The first rule of boke, however, clashes with martial arts. The very word “martial” is synonymous with the word “war.” While martial artists instruct their pupils to use their skills only in self-defense, the usage of such skills in and of themselves could injure their opponents. This also couples with the third rule- depending on the martial art you cannot hit in certain areas during competitions, but essentially martial arts as they are purely applied are designed to produce victory over an opponent with the least amount of effort and in the most effective way. However, even in contemporary schools of martial arts, there are prohibitions against seriously injuring or maiming fellow practitioners during training or practice, presumably because all the practitioners are members of the same community, and in effect are “on the same side.”
A further analysis of boke reveals something else unique to this form of wrestling- a ranking system. These ranks can only be received in the annual tournaments, held within the Naadam festival, and are as follows: five wins earns the rank of falcon, six the rank of hawk, seven the rank of elephant, eight the rank of garuda, nine the rank of lion, and ten wins earns the rank of champion, also known as titan [1]. This ranking system has some significant similarities to the rank title awarded to Japanese sumo champions. Batbayar, who described this ranking system to me, is himself ranked as a hawk nationally.
There are three different geographic divisions for ranking. The smallest is village, where the highest attainable rank is elephant [1]. Next is province whose highest ranking is lion [1]. Finally there is the national competition, held in Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia, which contains all of the ranks [1]. The rank for each division is independent of the other, although as one might assume a national rank is more prestigious than that of province and a provincial rank is more prestigious than that of a village rank. These wins, naturally, must be consecutive within a single tournament. There are ten rounds within each tournament, so the champion goes undefeated for all of his matches.
Because of this tiered system, 1024 people can participate in the first round, the number of participants halving as each round ends [1]. If a champion wins the tournament again, he receives the suffix “Ocean,” which is similar in its importance to the title of the Dalai Lama (“Ocean Lama”), bestowed upon the First Dalai Lama by a descendant of Genghis Khan [1]. The victor of three overall tournaments is granted the title of “Great” and a formidable four overall tournament wins entitles the winner to the suffix of “Steel” [1]. Each of these suffixes are cumulative, and are added to rather than substituted for the honorific suffix(es) earned previously. In this system, the highest rank attainable is “Champion Ocean Great Steel.”
Most contemporary schools of martial arts have adopted the traditional colored belt system, starting from white and ending at black. The white signifies innocence while the black shows a mastery of the martial art. Originally most martial arts did not have such a system, but it was adopted with the growing popularity in the West.
Mongolian citizens practice many different forms of martial arts that have originated in many different places. Perhaps the only remaining indigenous martial art in Mongolia with ancient antecedents is bandi zoo [1]. Bandi zoo has its roots in the traveling Buddhist monks, who are credited by many historians with spreading martial arts from their birth place in India [2]. In China, the martial arts that followed this same path of dissemination are wushu, more commonly referred to as kung-fu [2]. From China and the well-known Shaolin temples, the monks journeyed into Mongolia, where they spread both the ideas of Buddhism and martial arts. In Mongolia, the style became known as “bandi zoo,” which translates as “little monk.” The name originated from both the means by which it entered the country and from the practice of young Mongolian monks who would fight and wrestle with each other [1]. Bandi zoo and boke have influenced each other considerably, both are known for their throwing techniques, and bandi zoo has developed into its own by developing punching techniques independently from its wrestling counterpart. Bandi zoo also incorporates sweeps in its repertoire of techniques (“sweeps” are kicks designed to bring an opponent to the ground, such as hitting behind the knees [3]).
Obviously bandi zoo and boke have many similarities because they essentially share the same origin. Other martial arts such as samba, for example, also share techniques and other similarities. Samba is a martial art that focuses on throwing to disable an opponent [3]. Judo focuses on throws and grappling as well, which would draw many similarities towards boke.
However, most martial arts share basic fundamental traits with boke. Interestingly, each of these similarities are traits that bind together many martial arts schools as one cohesive unit. These five traits are speed, power, flexibility, courage and patience [2].
Each of the various martial arts utilize speed in different ways. The samurai of Japan used speed of footwork to accelerate towards an opponent, yet sacrificed the speed of their attacks for additional power. Kung-fu and Taekwondo utilize speed in every facet of their art- both movement and attacks have been designed to be as fast as possible to catch an opponent off guard and to defeat them in the fastest way possible. Power is focused into each attack executed in any martial art and flexibility is crucial to every aspect as well. Courage and patience are a little more subtle, but they too are undeniably important to any martial artist.
Boke also utilizes each of these traits. Speed is used to gain the upper hand in a match, which only has one round in Mongolia. Power is absolutely essential to throw the opponent to the ground which will result in a win for the match. Patience is required to wait for an opening in the opponents form and the chance to attack. Flexibility and courage are important as well, but speed, power and patience are the most important attributes of boke [2].
Figure 2. Two wrestlers competing in Naadam during the first round.
Another similarity shared between boke and traditional martial arts is the method of training individual practitioners. Both boke and martial arts rely, at least to an extent, on muscle power so lifting weights is important. Boke relies more on power so weight training is crucial. Long ago boke relied almost exclusively on strength as opposed to many specific techniques, but now boke is relying more and more on technique as well as strength [1]. As with any physical activity that requires practice, raw talent is only a small component of a practitioner’s skill. In all martial arts, skill chiefly and primarily results from hard work and continuous, frequent practice. Occasional or casual practice is ineffective; frequent and vigorous practice is required for any sort of improvement to be visible. The current Dean of the Police Academy in Ulaanbaatar, General T. Enkhsaikhan says that, as always, stretching is very important [4]. Stretching is essential to loosen the muscles before a workout- be it with weights or in practicing technique. He also says that each martial artist and wrestler is also trained to pay close attention to detail. He explained that in observing things, it is best to memorize every detail quickly and discreetly [4]. As mentioned above, tolerance and patience are two very important characteristics [4]. Laziness is not tolerated and discipline is cultivated within each student of a martial art and boke. Master Gan-Erdene, a trainer in Taekwondo (4th Dan, or level of black-belt) and a wrestler with the national rank of Lion, adds that determination is also vital to any practitioner of boke or a martial art [5]. Honesty and actions that come from the heart are demanded by instructors, as well as the attention of their students and their respect [5].
Training is intensified two weeks before Naadam to prepare the wrestlers for their competition [1]. Wrestlers such as Batbayar who are instructed in wrestling schools go to camps outside of Ulaanbaatar, for intensive training, isolated from other people. For the first week they undergo intensive training involving running, lifting weights, and refining techniques. The typical day begins at 5:00 AM and ends in the evening. The second week is much more laid back- its primary function is to allow each wrestler to rest and mentally prepare for the competition ahead. For martial artists, training does not increase drastically before a competition, because the basis of martial arts is to always be prepared. In fact, some practitioners train less immediately before competitions to avoid being accidentally injured before it is time to compete.
Boke and each martial art demands similar, if not the same, things from their practitioners. Respect for instructors is always a crucial aspect for the growth of skill of any practitioner. If one cannot realize that there are others that know more about their specific martial art or boke then there is no way that they can grow within that art. Determination to succeed is the hallmark of a successful practitioner of a martial art as well as a wrestler, which is coupled with the banishment of laziness and the cultivation of discipline.
There is a difference in the diets of wrestlers and martial artists. The diet of a Mongolian wrestler, as explained by Batpurev, a wrestler with the provincial rank of lion, includes carbohydrates and protein, primarily in the form of meat [6]. The chief reason behind eating these things is to build body mass and promote muscle growth. Recent scientific discoveries have shown that it is best for wrestlers to eat vegetables and fruit as well, so these have slowly been incorporated in their diet. Often, the meals of wrestlers, especially during training sessions for Naadam, is a meat soup with rice and a few vegetables such as carrots, potatoes and celery. Martial artists, on the other hand, have no set diet although many limit themselves to healthy foods. Also, when one imagines a typical martial artist they are generally slim and leaner than the average person. In contrast, wrestlers are generally bigger due to the additional muscle mass they develop for their sport.
The mentalities of wrestlers and martial artists are similar as well. Each knows that dedicated hard work is extremely important to success. Humility is practiced and maintained by both martial artists and wrestlers because overconfidence will lead to their defeat [6]. Practitioners of boke and martial arts hold themselves to high standards as well- they do not condone stealing and lying [6]. They are very polite and watch what they say to others, and limit, if not prohibit, smoking and drinking [6]. Bravery is also important to each practitioner. In fact, there are no weight or age brackets in boke, the smallest or youngest wrestler could face the largest or oldest [7]. Each wrestler and martial artist is trained to always be prepared to fight an opponent who may otherwise seem unbeatable without fear.
Many Mongolian practitioners of both boke and martial arts believe, as a matter of folk wisdom, that their abilities are passed down to their offspring by genetics. They believe larger men who are very good at wrestling have the tendency to father larger children who would be skilled at boke as well [1-3]. However, Mongol wrestlers believe that the gene is transferred by the mother’s side, suggesting that the most talented boke wrestlers would be the offspring of large fathers and mothers who were descended from great wrestlers, but further studies would have to be conducted to determine the validity of that statement.
Based on the comparisons offered above, I conclude that boke is derived or descended from a martial art. There are many examples of such a transition from military usage to entertainment and culture, such as Taekwondo. Taekwondo, as well as Judo, are now Olympic sports that were derived from methods originally developed for warfare. Martial arts as practiced today are largely divorced from their origin as a form of warfare; except for techniques taught to specialized experts (e.g. Secret Service, Army Rangers, Special Forces), there is no demand for warriors trained for large-scale battles involving hand-to-hand combat. When these styles were first being imagined and implemented none of the technology today was available, so armies were equipped with swords, spears, bow and arrow and other hand weapons that would require skills to use correctly and efficiently. Today’s military has adopted a point and shoot method with martial arts as a back-up last resort. Throughout this transition of martial arts many have now been converted to more of a spectator sport, such as boke, Taekwondo and Judo, to preserve their culture and style. Boke has every look of a martial art, a ranking system, a system for promotion, and even the same mental attitude as martial artists have.
As stated before, bandi zoo is Mongolia’s only indigenous martial art, which also happens to be a grappling art. Although punching is allowed in bandi zoo, it is not unreasonable to imagine how punching was eliminated as bandi zoo evolved into boke. A fundamental rule of boke is that one does not harm their opponent. Punches would make the match a lot more personal and would lead inevitably to greater violence and injury. It is possible that there was another indigenous martial art in Mongolia in the days of Genghis Khan, but that seems unlikely. Therefore, it is safe to say that boke originated from bandi zoo.
Mongolia influenced the world through an empire that globalized exchange and movement of trade goods, services, ideas and religion. The spread and refinement of martial arts was largely facilitated by Mongolia through its expansionist policies and free trade of ideas within the ever-widening borders of the empire. Martial arts have also been affected by changes in the times as well as weapons. In order to keep their traditions and culture alive, many martial arts converted to the sporting arena, which in some cases limits the techniques that can be used. One such example of this has been the development of boke, which originated from the indigenous Mongolian martial art called bandi zoo.
Works Cited
1. Batbayar Gelegjamts, wrestler (National Hawk)- Personal interview.
2. Hayangaarva, Colonel, former Dean of Police Academy and martial art scholar- Personal interview.
3. Monkh-Erdene, martial artist and weight lifter- Personal interview.
4. Enkh Saikhan, Dean of Police Academy- Personal Interview.
5. Gan-Erdene, Taekwondo trainer- 4th Dan, wrester (Lion)- Personal Interview.
6. Batpurev, wrestler (Provincial Lion)- Personal Interview.
7. Dagva Arei, Mongolian Wrestling Scholar (National Lion)- Personal Interview.
Works Consulted
1. Fabian, Stephen. Clearing Away Clouds, Weatherhill Inc., New York. 1999.
2. Finn, Michael. Martial Arts, The Overlook Press, Woodstock, New York. 1988.
3. Haines, Bruce A. Karate’s History and Traditions, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, Vermont. 1968.
4. Jones, David. Martial Arts Training in Japan, Tuttle Publishing, Boston. 2001.
5. Joshi, Saroj K. “Origin of Martial Arts and Nepal”. January 2, 2006.
6. Maliszewski, Michael. Spiritual Dimensions of the Martial Arts, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, Vermont. 1996.
7. Sidney, James, ed. The Warrior’s Path, Shambhala, Boston. 2003.
8. Soet, Steven. Martial Arts around the World, Unique Publications, Burbank, California. 1991.
9. Tianji, Li & Xilian, Du. A Guide to Chinese Martial Arts, McLaren, London. 1998.
10. Wiley, Mark V., ed. Martial Arts Talk, Tuttle Publishing, Boston. 2000.
With that, I have attached my paper to the bottom of this post for those of you who expressed interest in what I had to say. So please enjoy, and have a good day everyone! (One last note, the two images I had I cannot put onto livejournal, if you wish to see them or host them for me please let me know. Thanks again!)
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Although Mongolia is not credited with many specific technological innovations, Mongolia has been unusually successful in inter-mixing the skills and special attributes of the many cultures that the Mongols encountered in the course of conquest or trade and out of that mix synthesizing something greater than the sum of its parts. This particular aspect of Mongolian culture implies the possibility that Mongolia has played a major role in the spread or beginnings of martial arts. My paper will test this hypothesis by examining the various forms, schools, and techniques of Asian martial arts currently practiced in contemporary Mongolia in order to discern any evidence of a unique historic indigenous Mongolian school of martial arts, if that school has survived to the present date and if Mongolia influenced martial arts in other nations.
For this purpose I define martial arts as separate from simple wrestling, as a style of combat that utilizes practiced styles and techniques to train an individual in the ability to defend his or herself adeptly against one or more attackers. Most styles contain hand to hand techniques such as kicks and punches, however, some compliment this training with weapons. Further, a martial art is not simply a method of self defense; there is also a mindset that must be obtained through the repetition of the movements within the techniques, which gives these skills an aesthetic and philosophical character.
Martial arts do not have any one specific point of origin and were probably developed separately and refined in many different places. However, according to oral tradition, one of the earliest influential figures in establishing martial arts in Asia was Siddhartha Gautama, more commonly known as the Buddha Shakyamuni. Born in what is today Nepal, he lived his entire life in India and is believed to have formed his own style of martial arts during the period of asceticism and meditation prior to his enlightenment. His teachings and ministry established Buddhism in India around the sixth century B.C. [2].
One of his disciples, Bodhidharma, transferred the techniques and idea of martial arts as well as Buddhism to China within a century, where it became known as kung-fu and was primarily practiced in the Buddhist temples of the Shaolin sect. Shaolin means “young forest.” Originally there were two main temples, one in northern China and the other in southern China. According to Colonel Hayangarvaa Sanjhuu of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, former Director of the Political Science Department at the Mongolian National Policy Academy and a martial art scholar, martial arts eventually spread into Mongolia from China and evolved into a school called bandi zoo [2]. Knowledge of martial arts, and various schools of martial arts, spread to Mongolia through itinerant Buddhist and Taoist monks. Traveling monks were a major vehicle of disseminating learning of all kinds all over Asia.
Monks were generally barred, by the tenets of their sect, from carrying conventional hand-weapons but did need some means of self-defense as they traveled around to preach. Martial arts were developed by various monasteries to equip their itinerant monks with self-defense skills. These monks carried long walking sticks, which could be used in self-defense with proper training. As they spread their religious ideas, they also spread their particular style of martial arts, and learned others.
There is no evidence that Mongolia was the original source of all martial arts and Mongolian sources interviewed all suggested an origin in China or India. But Genghis Khan’s empire spanned most of East Asia, half of Europe and parts of the Middle East and created avenues of communication that encouraged global intellectual exchange, including schools and techniques of martial arts. Monkh-Erdene of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, a practicing martial artist and weight lifter, said that Genghis Khan kept his soldiers in excellent physical condition, with regular training in archery, swordsmanship, horsemanship and hand-to-hand combat [3]. The Great Khan’s success in many campaigns obviously required well-trained and disciplined soldiers.
In response to Genghis Khan’s aggressive policies, nations in his path and nationalities incorporated into his empire were forced by circumstances to scramble to develop ways of defending themselves. At that time, martial arts were not popular or widely practiced for recreational or spiritual purposes, as they are today. In my analysis, these different styles of martial arts sprang up to combat the Mongol horde. Many Asian lands began to teach their soldiers martial arts to defend themselves against invasion and, once disarmed and absorbed into the Mongol empire, to defend themselves against the depredations of bandits and rogue bands of warriors.
Some lands were more successful than others. India repelled Mongolian invasions for hundreds of years, until descendants of the original Mongol conquerors, by this time converted to Islam, successfully invaded and occupied India under the name of Moghuls. Their empire lasted until 1858. Japan was invaded twice by the Mongols but the Mongol invaders were defeated by a fortuitously-timed typhoon, which the Japanese thought of at the time, and since, as a kamikaze, or “divine wind.” These storms destroyed almost all of the invading Mongolian fleet and army.
Mongolia governed an enormous empire. Free exchange of currency, goods, ideas, and religions were encouraged. Such freedom of movement in such a large empire would also result in the sharing of martial arts. Mongolia became a melting pot of different ideas and styles of martial arts that were allowed to be expressed and studied.
Essentially, I believe that while Mongolia was not the birthplace of martial arts, the Mongol Empire stimulated their development and fostered their dissemination. As the proverb tells us, “necessity is the mother of invention.” Genghis Khan’s aggressive foreign policy demanded that his neighbors try to create defenses or be swept up into the Mongolian Empire. Because of this stimulus, martial arts became much more popular and more and more refined in terms of techniques and weapons.
Further, once lands became part of the Mongolian Empire they had access to the rest of the empire’s knowledge and expertise in any given field, including that of martial arts. One possible example of exchange is the Chinese martial arts school called shuai-chiao, which means “competing to throw.” A main subtype of shuai-chiao still practiced today is called the “Mongolian school,” which would have been exported to China from Mongolia during the Yuan Dynasty (1279- 1368 A.D.). The Yuan Dynasty was formed when Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan’s grandson, successfully conquered China and established it as his domain. While there is no direct evidence beyond the oral tradition of contemporary shuai-chiao professional practitioners and the survival of a Mongolian subtype within their school, the author is confident that this hypothesis is plausible and could, in fact, explain the similarities among many forms of martial arts as well as their large burst in popularity following the period of the Mongol conquests.
At a cursory glance, Mongolian wrestling, called boke” in Mongolian, does not seem to be a martial art, or have many similarities with martial arts. Boke is a form of wrestling, with no lethal intent, whereas martial arts involve a kind of stylized combat, an actual battle between two individuals. Martial arts have distinct techniques and specialized movements whereas wrestling usually utilizes brute strength. However, in that respect, boke seems to deviate from conventional wrestling and shows some striking similarities to what people refer to as “martial arts.”
Boke has a series of complex rules, rituals, and traditions that certainly continue today to exhibit the structure and characteristics of what formerly may have originated as a martial art. As Batbayar Gelegjamts of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, a wrestler, says, there are three major rules that elegantly, yet simply, define Mongolian wrestling [1].
The first is that you cannot injure your opponent [1]. One may think that this would be difficult because in order to win a wrestler must throw his opponent to the ground, but there are many ways to force your opponent to the ground without hurting him. Even though this is a match of strength and spirit, both combatants should be able to walk away from their battle against each other.
The second rule is that you cannot be fighting for revenge [1]. Doing so could potentially violate the first rule of Mongolian wrestling and could seriously injure someone. Perhaps as a corollary to this rule is that, like many other martial arts, each wrestler must respect one another [1]. Honor is extremely important as well, so wrestlers must be able to set aside any personal opinions they have for their opponent and face them with a clear mind.
The third and final major rule of wrestling is that wrestlers cannot hit each other in certain areas, such as the groin [1]. Honor and respect fall into this rule as well; obviously, the ends do not justify the means in Mongolian wrestling. In order to win, a wrestler must best their opponent in strength and skill, not through underhanded tricks.
While these are the most important three rules in Mongolian wrestling, there are still others, such as a requirement of standardized uniforms. Each wrestler is required to wear a uniform, zodog shuudag in Mongolian, that consists of a frontless fitted long sleeved shirt, kept on the body by cords tied together on the bottom [1]. Outer Mongolia, the sovereign nation, also requires wrestlers to wear tight-fitting briefs, rather similar to a Speedo bathing suit, while Inner Mongolia, part of the Peoples’ Republic of China requires loose-fitting pants. Whether in Inner or Outer Mongolia wrestlers must also wear large boots, much like the ones that are worn with deels, Mongolia’s traditional garb, along with a traditional hat [1]. Figure 1, below, shows the uniform as worn by two Mongolian youths as they await the beginning of the boke portion of Naadam.
Figure 1. Two youths dressed in the boke uniform at the Naadam Festival in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
Boke is also considered one of the three “manly sports” in Mongolia, all celebrated in the annual Naadam Festival. The festival is Mongolia’s national day, centering around competitions that date back to the days of Genghis Khan. This past year, Naadam was held July 11-12 although some of the events began before the official start of the festivities. The three “manly sports” are archery, horseback riding and boke, coincidentally all skills that were essential to a highly mobile army and that history indicates were a standard part of military training
Archery and horseback riding have within living memory permitted females to participate in these competitions but boke remains a man-only sport, due to the heavy weight of tradition and the uniform. When asked about the uniforms, Batbayar told an old story that may be apocryphal, but does neatly account for the open front shirt. Briefly, the story says that long ago a woman won the Naadam boke competition, disguised as a man. Her father was a great wrestler and she knew all the techniques and was extremely strong. After she won and her gender was discovered, the uniform was modified so that that would not happen again [1].
These rules, in some aspects, resemble those of martial arts. All organized schools of martial arts demand self-discipline more than anything else from their practitioners. Focus and having a clear mind are two key attributes teachers demand of their students in martial arts. Having a clear mind would make it impossible for someone to fight for the single purpose of exacting revenge. The first rule of boke, however, clashes with martial arts. The very word “martial” is synonymous with the word “war.” While martial artists instruct their pupils to use their skills only in self-defense, the usage of such skills in and of themselves could injure their opponents. This also couples with the third rule- depending on the martial art you cannot hit in certain areas during competitions, but essentially martial arts as they are purely applied are designed to produce victory over an opponent with the least amount of effort and in the most effective way. However, even in contemporary schools of martial arts, there are prohibitions against seriously injuring or maiming fellow practitioners during training or practice, presumably because all the practitioners are members of the same community, and in effect are “on the same side.”
A further analysis of boke reveals something else unique to this form of wrestling- a ranking system. These ranks can only be received in the annual tournaments, held within the Naadam festival, and are as follows: five wins earns the rank of falcon, six the rank of hawk, seven the rank of elephant, eight the rank of garuda, nine the rank of lion, and ten wins earns the rank of champion, also known as titan [1]. This ranking system has some significant similarities to the rank title awarded to Japanese sumo champions. Batbayar, who described this ranking system to me, is himself ranked as a hawk nationally.
There are three different geographic divisions for ranking. The smallest is village, where the highest attainable rank is elephant [1]. Next is province whose highest ranking is lion [1]. Finally there is the national competition, held in Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia, which contains all of the ranks [1]. The rank for each division is independent of the other, although as one might assume a national rank is more prestigious than that of province and a provincial rank is more prestigious than that of a village rank. These wins, naturally, must be consecutive within a single tournament. There are ten rounds within each tournament, so the champion goes undefeated for all of his matches.
Because of this tiered system, 1024 people can participate in the first round, the number of participants halving as each round ends [1]. If a champion wins the tournament again, he receives the suffix “Ocean,” which is similar in its importance to the title of the Dalai Lama (“Ocean Lama”), bestowed upon the First Dalai Lama by a descendant of Genghis Khan [1]. The victor of three overall tournaments is granted the title of “Great” and a formidable four overall tournament wins entitles the winner to the suffix of “Steel” [1]. Each of these suffixes are cumulative, and are added to rather than substituted for the honorific suffix(es) earned previously. In this system, the highest rank attainable is “Champion Ocean Great Steel.”
Most contemporary schools of martial arts have adopted the traditional colored belt system, starting from white and ending at black. The white signifies innocence while the black shows a mastery of the martial art. Originally most martial arts did not have such a system, but it was adopted with the growing popularity in the West.
Mongolian citizens practice many different forms of martial arts that have originated in many different places. Perhaps the only remaining indigenous martial art in Mongolia with ancient antecedents is bandi zoo [1]. Bandi zoo has its roots in the traveling Buddhist monks, who are credited by many historians with spreading martial arts from their birth place in India [2]. In China, the martial arts that followed this same path of dissemination are wushu, more commonly referred to as kung-fu [2]. From China and the well-known Shaolin temples, the monks journeyed into Mongolia, where they spread both the ideas of Buddhism and martial arts. In Mongolia, the style became known as “bandi zoo,” which translates as “little monk.” The name originated from both the means by which it entered the country and from the practice of young Mongolian monks who would fight and wrestle with each other [1]. Bandi zoo and boke have influenced each other considerably, both are known for their throwing techniques, and bandi zoo has developed into its own by developing punching techniques independently from its wrestling counterpart. Bandi zoo also incorporates sweeps in its repertoire of techniques (“sweeps” are kicks designed to bring an opponent to the ground, such as hitting behind the knees [3]).
Obviously bandi zoo and boke have many similarities because they essentially share the same origin. Other martial arts such as samba, for example, also share techniques and other similarities. Samba is a martial art that focuses on throwing to disable an opponent [3]. Judo focuses on throws and grappling as well, which would draw many similarities towards boke.
However, most martial arts share basic fundamental traits with boke. Interestingly, each of these similarities are traits that bind together many martial arts schools as one cohesive unit. These five traits are speed, power, flexibility, courage and patience [2].
Each of the various martial arts utilize speed in different ways. The samurai of Japan used speed of footwork to accelerate towards an opponent, yet sacrificed the speed of their attacks for additional power. Kung-fu and Taekwondo utilize speed in every facet of their art- both movement and attacks have been designed to be as fast as possible to catch an opponent off guard and to defeat them in the fastest way possible. Power is focused into each attack executed in any martial art and flexibility is crucial to every aspect as well. Courage and patience are a little more subtle, but they too are undeniably important to any martial artist.
Boke also utilizes each of these traits. Speed is used to gain the upper hand in a match, which only has one round in Mongolia. Power is absolutely essential to throw the opponent to the ground which will result in a win for the match. Patience is required to wait for an opening in the opponents form and the chance to attack. Flexibility and courage are important as well, but speed, power and patience are the most important attributes of boke [2].
Figure 2. Two wrestlers competing in Naadam during the first round.
Another similarity shared between boke and traditional martial arts is the method of training individual practitioners. Both boke and martial arts rely, at least to an extent, on muscle power so lifting weights is important. Boke relies more on power so weight training is crucial. Long ago boke relied almost exclusively on strength as opposed to many specific techniques, but now boke is relying more and more on technique as well as strength [1]. As with any physical activity that requires practice, raw talent is only a small component of a practitioner’s skill. In all martial arts, skill chiefly and primarily results from hard work and continuous, frequent practice. Occasional or casual practice is ineffective; frequent and vigorous practice is required for any sort of improvement to be visible. The current Dean of the Police Academy in Ulaanbaatar, General T. Enkhsaikhan says that, as always, stretching is very important [4]. Stretching is essential to loosen the muscles before a workout- be it with weights or in practicing technique. He also says that each martial artist and wrestler is also trained to pay close attention to detail. He explained that in observing things, it is best to memorize every detail quickly and discreetly [4]. As mentioned above, tolerance and patience are two very important characteristics [4]. Laziness is not tolerated and discipline is cultivated within each student of a martial art and boke. Master Gan-Erdene, a trainer in Taekwondo (4th Dan, or level of black-belt) and a wrestler with the national rank of Lion, adds that determination is also vital to any practitioner of boke or a martial art [5]. Honesty and actions that come from the heart are demanded by instructors, as well as the attention of their students and their respect [5].
Training is intensified two weeks before Naadam to prepare the wrestlers for their competition [1]. Wrestlers such as Batbayar who are instructed in wrestling schools go to camps outside of Ulaanbaatar, for intensive training, isolated from other people. For the first week they undergo intensive training involving running, lifting weights, and refining techniques. The typical day begins at 5:00 AM and ends in the evening. The second week is much more laid back- its primary function is to allow each wrestler to rest and mentally prepare for the competition ahead. For martial artists, training does not increase drastically before a competition, because the basis of martial arts is to always be prepared. In fact, some practitioners train less immediately before competitions to avoid being accidentally injured before it is time to compete.
Boke and each martial art demands similar, if not the same, things from their practitioners. Respect for instructors is always a crucial aspect for the growth of skill of any practitioner. If one cannot realize that there are others that know more about their specific martial art or boke then there is no way that they can grow within that art. Determination to succeed is the hallmark of a successful practitioner of a martial art as well as a wrestler, which is coupled with the banishment of laziness and the cultivation of discipline.
There is a difference in the diets of wrestlers and martial artists. The diet of a Mongolian wrestler, as explained by Batpurev, a wrestler with the provincial rank of lion, includes carbohydrates and protein, primarily in the form of meat [6]. The chief reason behind eating these things is to build body mass and promote muscle growth. Recent scientific discoveries have shown that it is best for wrestlers to eat vegetables and fruit as well, so these have slowly been incorporated in their diet. Often, the meals of wrestlers, especially during training sessions for Naadam, is a meat soup with rice and a few vegetables such as carrots, potatoes and celery. Martial artists, on the other hand, have no set diet although many limit themselves to healthy foods. Also, when one imagines a typical martial artist they are generally slim and leaner than the average person. In contrast, wrestlers are generally bigger due to the additional muscle mass they develop for their sport.
The mentalities of wrestlers and martial artists are similar as well. Each knows that dedicated hard work is extremely important to success. Humility is practiced and maintained by both martial artists and wrestlers because overconfidence will lead to their defeat [6]. Practitioners of boke and martial arts hold themselves to high standards as well- they do not condone stealing and lying [6]. They are very polite and watch what they say to others, and limit, if not prohibit, smoking and drinking [6]. Bravery is also important to each practitioner. In fact, there are no weight or age brackets in boke, the smallest or youngest wrestler could face the largest or oldest [7]. Each wrestler and martial artist is trained to always be prepared to fight an opponent who may otherwise seem unbeatable without fear.
Many Mongolian practitioners of both boke and martial arts believe, as a matter of folk wisdom, that their abilities are passed down to their offspring by genetics. They believe larger men who are very good at wrestling have the tendency to father larger children who would be skilled at boke as well [1-3]. However, Mongol wrestlers believe that the gene is transferred by the mother’s side, suggesting that the most talented boke wrestlers would be the offspring of large fathers and mothers who were descended from great wrestlers, but further studies would have to be conducted to determine the validity of that statement.
Based on the comparisons offered above, I conclude that boke is derived or descended from a martial art. There are many examples of such a transition from military usage to entertainment and culture, such as Taekwondo. Taekwondo, as well as Judo, are now Olympic sports that were derived from methods originally developed for warfare. Martial arts as practiced today are largely divorced from their origin as a form of warfare; except for techniques taught to specialized experts (e.g. Secret Service, Army Rangers, Special Forces), there is no demand for warriors trained for large-scale battles involving hand-to-hand combat. When these styles were first being imagined and implemented none of the technology today was available, so armies were equipped with swords, spears, bow and arrow and other hand weapons that would require skills to use correctly and efficiently. Today’s military has adopted a point and shoot method with martial arts as a back-up last resort. Throughout this transition of martial arts many have now been converted to more of a spectator sport, such as boke, Taekwondo and Judo, to preserve their culture and style. Boke has every look of a martial art, a ranking system, a system for promotion, and even the same mental attitude as martial artists have.
As stated before, bandi zoo is Mongolia’s only indigenous martial art, which also happens to be a grappling art. Although punching is allowed in bandi zoo, it is not unreasonable to imagine how punching was eliminated as bandi zoo evolved into boke. A fundamental rule of boke is that one does not harm their opponent. Punches would make the match a lot more personal and would lead inevitably to greater violence and injury. It is possible that there was another indigenous martial art in Mongolia in the days of Genghis Khan, but that seems unlikely. Therefore, it is safe to say that boke originated from bandi zoo.
Mongolia influenced the world through an empire that globalized exchange and movement of trade goods, services, ideas and religion. The spread and refinement of martial arts was largely facilitated by Mongolia through its expansionist policies and free trade of ideas within the ever-widening borders of the empire. Martial arts have also been affected by changes in the times as well as weapons. In order to keep their traditions and culture alive, many martial arts converted to the sporting arena, which in some cases limits the techniques that can be used. One such example of this has been the development of boke, which originated from the indigenous Mongolian martial art called bandi zoo.
Works Cited
1. Batbayar Gelegjamts, wrestler (National Hawk)- Personal interview.
2. Hayangaarva, Colonel, former Dean of Police Academy and martial art scholar- Personal interview.
3. Monkh-Erdene, martial artist and weight lifter- Personal interview.
4. Enkh Saikhan, Dean of Police Academy- Personal Interview.
5. Gan-Erdene, Taekwondo trainer- 4th Dan, wrester (Lion)- Personal Interview.
6. Batpurev, wrestler (Provincial Lion)- Personal Interview.
7. Dagva Arei, Mongolian Wrestling Scholar (National Lion)- Personal Interview.
Works Consulted
1. Fabian, Stephen. Clearing Away Clouds, Weatherhill Inc., New York. 1999.
2. Finn, Michael. Martial Arts, The Overlook Press, Woodstock, New York. 1988.
3. Haines, Bruce A. Karate’s History and Traditions, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, Vermont. 1968.
4. Jones, David. Martial Arts Training in Japan, Tuttle Publishing, Boston. 2001.
5. Joshi, Saroj K. “Origin of Martial Arts and Nepal”. January 2, 2006.
6. Maliszewski, Michael. Spiritual Dimensions of the Martial Arts, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, Vermont. 1996.
7. Sidney, James, ed. The Warrior’s Path, Shambhala, Boston. 2003.
8. Soet, Steven. Martial Arts around the World, Unique Publications, Burbank, California. 1991.
9. Tianji, Li & Xilian, Du. A Guide to Chinese Martial Arts, McLaren, London. 1998.
10. Wiley, Mark V., ed. Martial Arts Talk, Tuttle Publishing, Boston. 2000.