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HONORS BIOLOGY SECOND SEMESTER FINAL EXAM REVIEW
GENETICS AND MEIOSIS (CH 9)
Father of Genetics
• Father of Genetics = Gregor Mendel, priest, born in what is today the Czech Republic
• Studied biology in Vienna, applied this knowledge to pea plants
• Self-pollination: pollen produced by the plant fertilizes egg cells of the same plant. Seeds produced by self-pollination inherit all their characteristics from the plant that bore them.
• Cross-pollination: fertilization of a plant’s egg cells by the pollen of another plant- produces seeds that are the offspring of two different plants.
• Mendel used the technique of cross-pollination to produce plants with different characteristics.
• Plants in monastery were purebred, meaning if allowed to self-pollinate, these plants would produce offspring identical to themselves.
• Mendel studied only a few traits, or characteristics.
• Mendel grew hybrids, or organism produced by crossing plants with differing characters.
• Mendel drew two conclusions from his experiments: individual factors, which do not blend with one another, control each trait of a living thing. These factors are called genes. The different forms of a gene are called alleles. The second conclusion is the principal of dominance. Some alleles are dominant and others are recessive: the effects of a dominant allele are seen even when present with a contrasting recessive allele. The effects of a recessive allele are not observed when the dominant allele is present.
Gamete and somatic cell chromosome numbers
• Homologous: description of chromosomes that occur in pairs; having a corresponding structure
• Diploid: cell that contains both chromosomes (one from each parent) and two complete sets of genes- diploid number represented by 2N
• Haploids: cells that contain a single set of chromosomes- haploid number represented by N
How organisms maintain their chromosome number during reproduction
• Organisms maintain their chromosome number during reproduction through meiosis.
Results of meiosis
• The number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half and the homologous chromosomes that exist in a diploid cell are separated
• Begins with a diploid cell and produces four haploid cells
• Haploid cells that are produced are genetically different from the diploid cell and from each other because homologous chromosomes are separated during the first meiotic division and because crossing-over results in the production of new gene combinations on the chromosomes.
How egg and sperm formation differ in the same species
• Female gamete is called an egg. In female animals, the cell divisions at the end of meiosis I and meiosis II are uneven, so the egg or ovule receives most of the cytoplasm. The other three cells produced in the female during meiosis are known as polar bodies and usually do not participate in reproduction.
• In males, haploid gametes produced by meiosis are called sperm.
The two fundamental rules of probability
• You only get the expected ratio for large numbers of trials.
• Previous events do not affect future outcomes.
• Formula for probability: the number of times a particular event occurs divided by the number of opportunities for the event to occur (number of trials)
Vocabulary:
• Punnett Square: chart showing the possible combinations of genes in the offspring of a cross
• Alleles: one of a number of different forms of the same gene for a specific trait
• Principle of Dominance: Some alleles are dominant and others are recessive: the effects of a dominant allele are seen even when present with a contrasting recessive allele. The effects of a recessive allele are not observed when the dominant allele is present.
• Dominant: form of a gene that is expressed even if present with a contrasting recessive allele
• Recessive: description of a form of a gene (allele) that is only expressed in the homozygous state
• Purebred: (homozygous) organism that has two identical alleles for a particular trait
• Hybrid: (heterozygous) organism with two different alleles for a particular trait; organism resulting from a cross between dissimilar parents
• Phenotype: physical characteristics of an organism
• Genotype: genetic makeup of an organism
• Principle of Segregation: the two forms of each gene are segregated during the formation of reproductive cells
• Principle of Independent Assortment: the genes for different traits may assort independently of one another
• Diploid number: represented by 2N
• Haploid number: represented by N
• Gametes: specialized reproductive cells involved in sexual reproduction
• Probability: likelihood that a particular event will occur
• Meiosis: process that produces haploid cells from diploid cells
• Homologous chromosomes: chromosomes that occur in pairs; have corresponding structures
• Crossing over: process in meiosis I in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids; results in the exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes and produces new combinations of genes.
CLASSIFICATION
Order of classification categories from largest to smallest
• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species
Six kingdom classification system
• Eubacteria
o Prokaryotes
o Surrounded by a cell wall composed of complex carbohydrates that protects the cell from injury
o Within the cell wall is a cell membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm
o Example: cyanobacteria, prochlorobacteria
• Archaebacteria
o Prokaryotes
o Lack an important carbohydrate found in cell walls of nearly all Eubacteria
o Example: methanogens
• Protista
o Contains all single-celled eukaryotic organisms
o Divided into three groups: animallike protists, plantlike protists, and funguslike protists.
o Example: parameciums
• Fungi
o Build cell walls that do not contain cellulose
o Heterotrophic- does not carry on photosynthesis
o Many fungi have nuclei, but they do not always have separate cells divided by complete cell walls
o Example: fly agaric
• Plantae
o Multicellular, have cell walls that contain cellulose, and are autotrophic (can carry on photosynthesis using chlorophyll)
o Examples: flowering plants, mosses, ferns
• Animalia
o Multicellular, heterotrophic, and have cell membranes without cell walls
o Examples: sponges, elephants
Vocabulary:
• Kingdom: group of closely related phyla
• Phylum: group of closely related classes
• Class: group of closely related orders
• Order: group of closely related families
• Family: group of closely related genera
• Genus: group of closely related species
• Species: group of organisms that share similar characteristics and can interbreed with one another to produce fertile offsprings
• Binomial nomenclature: classification system in which each organism is given a two-part scientific name
• Linnaeus: developed the system of binomial nomenclature
• Scientific name: The first part of the name is the genus name. The second part of the name is the species name, usually a Latin description of some important characteristic of the organism. The genus name but not the species name is capitalized and the whole name is written in italics.
• Cytochrome c: Protein that virtually every organism uses in its electron transport chain. However, each species’ cycochrome c differs slightly from the cytochrome c of other species.
• Prokaryote: single-celled organism whose cells do not have a nucleus
• Eukaryote: organism made up of cells that have a nucleus
VIRUSES AND BACTERIA
Structure of a virus
• Composed of a core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. The capsid protects the nucleic acid core. Depending on the virus, the nucleic acid core is either DNA or RNA but never both.
• Bacteriophage: viruses that invade bacteria. Consists of a head region (composed of a capsid, or protein coat), a nucleic acid core, and a tail.
• Shapes of viruses: rod-shaped, tadpole-shaped, many-sided, helical, or cubelike.
Vocabulary:
• Vaccines: injection of a weakened or mild form of a pathogen used to produce immunity
• Aerobes:
• Anaerobes:
• Obligate aerobes: organism that requires a constant supply of oxygen to live
• Obligate anaerobes: organism that lives only in the absence of oxygen
• Facultative anaerobes: organism that can survive with or without oxygen
• Cocci: spherical bacteria
• Bacilli: rod-shaped bacteria
• Spirilla: spiral-shaped bacteria
• Antibiotics: drug or natural compound that can attack and destroy certain microorganisms
• Binary fission: type of asexual reproduction in which an organism divides to produce two identical daughter cells
MOSSES
Classification of bryophytes
• Includes the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
• Have life cycles that involve an alternation of generations between a haploid gametophyte and a diploid sporophyte
• Need only water for reproduction to occur
• Lack a protective surface covering to keep water from evaporating from their cells
• Lack true roots
• Lack water conducting tubes that are found in higher plants
Process water passes from cell to cell by
• Osmosis and by means of surface tension around the stems
Type of habitat required by bryophytes
• Wet
The part of moss plants you might observe on a walk through the woods
• Clumps of haploid moss gametophytes growing close together.
Vocabulary:
• Byrophyta: phylum that includes the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
• Spores: a small, usually single-celled reproductive body that is highly resistant to desiccation and heat and is capable of growing into a new organism
• Rhizoids: rootlike structures that anchor the plant to the ground
• Gametophyte: haploid plant that produces gametes
• Sporophyte: diploid plant that produces spores
FERNS
Classification of ferns
• Have true vascular tissues: transport water and products of photosynthesis throughout the plant. Two types: xylem, associated with the movement of water from the roots to all parts of the plant, and phloem, responsible for the transport of nutrients and the products of photosynthesis.
• Have strong roots
• Have creeping or underground stems called rhizomes
• Have large leaves called fronds
• Most abundant in wet, or seasonally wet, habitats around the world
The part of plants we recognize as ferns
• Fronds
• Strong roots
• Rhizomes
Vocabulary:
• Tracheophytes: any of various vascular plants, including seed plants and ferns, having a conducting system of xylem and phloem.
• Seedless plants: plants that reproduce by spores
• Prothallium: a small, flat, delicate structure produced by a germinating spore and bearing sex organs. It is the gametophyte of ferns and some other plants.
• Frond: large leaf of a fern
• Sori: plural of sorus
• Sporangia: a single-celled or many-celled structure in which spores are produced
• Sporophytes: the spore-producing phase in the life cycle of a plant that exhibits alternation of generations.
• Gametophytes: the gamete-producing phase in a plant characterized by alternation of generations.
PLANTS
Classification of plants, common name for some plant subphyla and classes
• Kingdom Plantae
o Divided into Nonvascular and Vascular plants
• Nonvascular phyla: bryophyta
• Classes: mosses, liverworts, hornworts
• Vascular phyla: tracheophyta
• Subphlya: seedless plants, spermophyta
Two groups of seed plants and their reproductive structures, two groups of angiosperms
• Gymnosperms: (naked seed) each seed is protected by a seed coat, but the seed is not covered by the cone.
o Examples: Cycads, ginkgoes
o Conifers: commonly called evergreens, most abundant gymnosperms today. Examples: pines, spruce, fir, cedars, sequoias, redwoods, and yew
o Reproduction: produce two kinds of cones. Male cones, called pollen cones, produce male gametophytes in the form of pollen grains. Female cones, called seed cones, house the female gametophytes that produce ovules.
• Angiosperms: flowering plants; all angiosperms reproduce sexually through their flowers in a process that involves pollination
o Fruit: ripened ovary
o Monocotlyedonae or monocats: includes corn, wheat, lilies, daffodils, orchids, and palms.
• Have one seed leaf, or cotyledon.
• Veins in monocot leaves usually parallel to each other
• Petals and other petal parts found in threes or multiples of threes
• Xylem and phloem tissues are gatherer into vascular bunches that are scattered throughout the stem
• Bundle of xylem and phloem alternate with each other in a circular arrangement
• Most have stems and roots that do not grow thicker from year to year
o Dicotyledonae, or dicots: includes roses, clover, tomatoes, oaks, and daises.
• Start off with two seed leaves
• Veins in dicot leaves form a branching network
• Petals and other flower parts occur in fours or fives or in multiples of four or five
• Vascular bundles arranged in a ring near the outside of the stem
• A single mass of xylem tissue forms an X in the center of the root, and bundles of phloem tissue are positioned between the arms of the “X”
• Some dicot stems and roots can grow thicker from year to year
Flower structures and functions, function of xylem and phloem
• Roots: absorb water and dissolved nutrients from moist soil, anchor plants in the ground, hold plants upright and prevent them from being knocked over by the wind and rain
• Stems: hold a plant’s leaves up to the sun
• Leaves: the organs in which plants capture the sun’s energy
• Flowers: consist of pistil, stamen
• Seeds: structures that protect the zygotes of seed plants; seed coat (hull) protects embryo
• Xylem: vascular tissues primarily responsible for carrying water and dissolved nutrients from the roots to stems and leaves
• Phloem: carries the products of photosynthesis and certain other substances from one part of the plant to another
Examples and meaning of names of gymnosperms, angiosperms, monocots, dicots
• Gymnosperms: naked seed, means that the seeds do not have a hull
• Angiosperms: flower seed, means that the seeds
• Monocots: have one seed leaf
• Dicots: have two seed leaves
Characteristics of monocots and dicots; vascular arrangement, veins in leaves, number of flower parts, number of cotyledons, change in stem thickness
• Characteristics of monocots:
Have one seed leaf, or cotyledon.
Veins in monocot leaves usually parallel to each other
Petals and other petal parts found in threes or multiples of threes
Xylem and phloem tissues are gatherer into vascular bunches that are scattered throughout the stem
Bundle of xylem and phloem alternate with each other in a circular arrangement
Most have stems and roots that do not grow thicker from year to year
• Characteristics of dicots:
Start off with two seed leaves
Veins in dicot leaves form a branching network
Petals and other flower parts occur in fours or fives or in multiples of four or five
Vascular bundles arranged in a ring near the outside of the stem
A single mass of xylem tissue forms an X in the center of the root, and bundles of phloem tissue are positioned between the arms of the “X”
Some dicot stems and roots can grow thicker from year to year
PLANT REPRODUCTION
Reproductive structures of gymnosperms
• Reproduce by cones
Male gametophyte of seed plants
•
Sterile flower parts and their functions and locations
Reproductive flower parts and their functions
Ovule development into seed parts and ovary into fruit
Development of seed into seed plant and functions of seed parts during development
Which generation of seed plants is the large and obvious one
Examples of plants that exhibit seed dispersal
Vocabulary
• Spores:
• Cones:
• Flowers:
• Fruit: ripened ovary
• Scale:
• Petals:
• Sepals:
• Corolla:
• Calyx:
• Pistil:
• Stigma:
• Style:
• Ovary:
• Ovules:
• Stamen:
• Anther:
• Filament:
• Pollen grain:
• Pollen chamber:
• Gametophyte:
• Fertilization:
• Pollination:
• Germination:
• Endosperm:
• Seed dispersal:
• Bud:
• Embryo:
• Cotyledon:
• Seed coat: hull
ECOLOGY
Vocabulary:
• Ecology: the study of the interactions of organisms with one another and with their physical surroundings.
• Biosphere: a living globe. The biosphere is that part of the Earth in which life exists. It includes all the areas of land, air, and water, and the life that populates those areas.
• Ecosystem: smaller unit of the biosphere: consists of a given area’s physical features (abiotic factors) and living organisms (biotic factors)
• Community: organisms living together in an ecosystem
• Population: collection of individuals of the same species in a given area whose members can breed with one another
• Biome: environment that has a characteristic climax community
• Tundra: biomes covering Northern North America, Asia, and Europe. The tundra is the northernmost biome.
• Permafrost: a layer of permanently frozen subsoil
• Taiga: biomes located south of the tundra and dominated by great coniferous, or cone-bearing, forests of fir, pine, and spruce. The taiga spans across much of North America and Asia, with a small band reaching into Norway and Sweden.
• Temperate deciduous forest: biomes covering the Eastern coast of the U.S., the southernmost coast of Canada, most of Europe, and parts of Japan, China, and Australia.
• Grassland: usually found in the interior portions of many continents; vast areas covered with grasses and small leafy plants. Includes: plains and prairies of North America, steppes of Russia, veld of South America, and pampas of Argentina.
• Prairies: an extensive area of flat or rolling, predominantly treeless grassland, especially the large tract or plain of central North America.
• Velds: any of the open grazing areas of southern Africa.
• Savannas: a flat grassland of tropical or subtropical regions
• Tropical rain forest: biome found in parts of the world where temperature stays warm and rain falls year round; covers large areas of South America, Southeast Asia, and Central America.
• Desert: biomes that occur where there is less than 25 cm of rainfall/year.
• Freshwater biome: rivers, streams, and lakes: provides much of our drinking water and is an important source of food.
• Marine biome: vast habitats of the ocean, covering most of the Earth’s surface.
• Deep-sea zone: area of high pressure, cold temperature, and total darkness in the ocean
• Estuary: found at the boundary between fresh water and salt water.
• Producer: organism that is able to make its own food from inorganic substances
• Consumer: get their energy directly or indirectly from consumers
• Decomposer: organisms that obtain their energy from nonliving matter
• Scavenger: an animal, such as a bird or insect, that feeds on dead or decaying matter.
• Primary consumer: feed directly on producers
ANIMAL KINGDOM - VERTEBRATES
Classes of all animals that belong to phylum Chordata
Characteristics of each class
Examples of each class
Characteristics of chordates during early embryonic life
Frog heart characteristics
Characteristics of the three groups of mammals
Mammalian heart characteristics
How do mammals help to control their body heat
Vocabulary:
• Chordata:
• Agnatha:
• Chondrichthyes:
• Osteichythyes:
• Amphibia:
• Reptilia:
• Aves:
• Mammalia:
• Vertebrate:
• Tunicate:
• Hollow dorsal nerve cord:
• Notochord:
• Closed circulatory system:
• Pharyngeal gills:
• Invertebrate chordates:
• Vertebrate chordates:
• Jawless fish:
• Cartilaginous fish:
• Bony fish:
• Scales:
• Fins:
• Pectoral fins:
• Amphibian:
• Reptile:
• Bird:
• Mammal:
• Ectotherm:
• Endotherm:
• Cold-blooded:
• Warm-blooded:
• Viviparous:
• Forelimbs:
• Hindlimbs:
• Lamprey:
• Hagfish:
• Skate:
• Ray:
• Tuna:
• Goldfish:
• Nictitating membrane:
• Monotremes:
• Marsupials:
• Placental mammals:
• Diaphragm
SYSTEMS
Ten systems, major organs, and functions
• Circulatory
o Major organ: heart
o Other organs: arteries, veins, capillaries, blood, plasma
o Functions: carries oxygen, hormones, and nutrients to the cells and waste products away from the cells
• Respiratory
o Major organ: lungs
o Other organs: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, alveoli, diaphragm, bronchi (bronchioles)
o Function: bring in oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide
• Integumentary
o Major organ: skin
o Other organs: glands (sweat and sebaceous oil glands) hair, nerves
o Function: protects the body, helps to control body temperature, gets rid of salt wastes, gateway for sensation of pressure, heat, cold, pain, etc.
• Muscular
o Major organ: muscles
o Other organs: tendons, muscles (skeletal, smooth, cardiac)
o Function: Allows movement one way (contracts)
• Endocrine
o Major organ: pituitary gland
o Other organs: pancreas, adrenal gland, thyroid, parathyroid, ovaries, tests
o Functions: pancreas regulates blood sugar, thyroid regulates metabolism, parathyroid regulates calcium
• Nervous
o Major organs: brain and spinal chord
o Other organs:
o Function: receives and relays information about activities within the body and monitors and responds to internal and external changes
• Excretory
o Major organ: kidneys (consists of nephrons, glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule)
o Other organs: ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
o Functions: filters waste, extra water, and salts from the body
• Reproductive
o Major organ: Male: testes (consists of scrotum, seminiferous tubules) Female: ovaries
o Other organs: Male: epididymis, vas deferns, urethra, prostate gland. Female: Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina
o Function: produces, stores, nourishes, and releases specialized sex cells (called gametes) in order to produce offspring for the continuation of a species
• Digestive
o Major organ: small intestine
o Other organs: mouth, teeth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, large intestine, anus, salivary gland, pancreas, liver
o Function: breaks down food into simple molecules that can be absorbed by the cells for growth
• Skeletal
o Major organ: bones
o Other organs: bone marrow, joints (cartilage, tendons, ligaments)
o Function: supports the animal, protects internal organs, provides a system of levers for movement, produces blood cells, stores calcium and phospherus
The largest organ in the human body
• Skin
Where water loss occurs from the body
• Excretory system
CIRCULATORY
Function and anatomy of heart: right side, left side, atrium, ventricle, coronary artery
• Right side of the heart
o Pumps blood from the body into the lungs; blood deposits carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen
• Left side of the heart
o Pumps oxygen rich blood to the rest of the body
• Atrium, ventricle, coronary artery: see vocabulary
What happens when infection occurs
• White blood cells protect the body against invasion by foreign cells or substances.
o Some white blood cells destroy bacteria or cells by phagocytosis (large cells are taken inside a cell and digested)
o Others make special proteins called antibodies
o Some release special chemicals to help the body resist disease and fight off infection
Largest blood vessel
Vocabulary:
• Deoxygenated blood: blood low in oxygen
• Oxygenated blood: blood rich in oxygen
• Heart: hollow muscular organ that contracts at regular intervals, forcing blood through the circulatory system
• Aorta: large artery in mammals that carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle of the heart to all parts of the body except the lungs.
• Vena cava: large blood vessel that brings blood from all parts of the body except the lungs to the heart
• Coronary artery: either one of the two arteries that originate in the aorta and supply blood to the muscular tissue of the heart
• Artery: tough, flexible blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart to the tissues of the body
• Vein: blood vessel that collects blood from the body and carries it back to the heart
• Arteriole: one of the small terminal branches of an artery, esp. one that connects with a capillary
• Venule: a small vein, especially one joining capillaries to larger veins.
• Capillary: small thin-walled blood vessel that allows materials to diffuse between the blood and the tissue
• Blood: fluid medium of the circulatory system
• Lymph: clear, watery, sometimes faintly yellowish fluid derived from body tissues that contains white blood cells and circulates throughout the lymphatic system, returning to the venous bloodstream through the thoracic duct. Lymph removes bacteria and certain proteins from the tissues, transports fat from the small intestine, and supplies mature lymphocytes to the blood.
• Red blood cell: blood cell, also known as a erthyrocyte, produced in bone marrow and filled with hemoglobin to transport oxygen; in humans, erythrocytes lack a nucleus
• White blood cell: blood cell produced in bone marrow that protects the body against invasion by foreign cells or substances
• Atria: plural of atrium
• Ventricle: muscular chamber that pumps blood out of the heart
RESPIRATORY
Anatomy of the lung and the passageway of air through the system
• Anatomy of lung
o Trachea branches into left and right bronchi- each enters the lung on its respective side
o Bronchi eventually lead into bronchioles
o Bronchioles subdivide until they end in clusters of tiny hollow air sacs called alveoli
• Passageway of air through the system
o Air enters through the mouth or nose into pharynx
o From there, air moves to trachea
o Air then moves to larynx
o Then passes downward into the chest cavity through the trachea
o Then moves through the bronchi into the lungs
o Then passes through bronchioles to the alveoli
How diaphragm works and is controlled
Contents of air during inhalation and exhalation; How and where gas exchange occurs
Specialization of cells that line the trachea
Vocabulary:
• Nasal cavity:
• Pharynx:
• Trachea:
• Bronchus:
• Bronchioles:
• Alveoli:
• Larynx:
• Vocal cords:
• Voice box:
• Adam’s apple:
• Diaphragm:
• Hemoglobin:
INTEGUMENTARY
Organs contained in this system
• Skin
• Glands (sweat and sebaceous oil glands)
• Hair
• nerves
How integument works to cool body temperature; How hair is maintained
• To conserve heat on a cold day, the blood vessels in the dermis narrow, helping to limit heat loss
• On hot days, the blood vessels widen, warming the skin and increasing heat loss
• Sweat glands produce sweat that evaporates and cools the skin
• Sebaceous oil glands produce an oily secretion that maintains the condition of each individual hair
Vocabulary
• Epidermis: outermost layer of skin
• Skin: composed of the epidermis and dermis; largest organ in the body
• Hair: produced by cells at the base of structures called hair follicles, which are tubelike pockets of epidermal hairs that extend into the dermis
• Nails: produce by the area of rapidly dividing cells located at the tips of fingers and toes
• Sweat glands: produce the watery secretion known as sweat, which contains salts, water, and other compounds
• Sebaceous glands: produce an oily secretion known as sebum at spreads out along the surface of the skin and keeps the epidermis flexible and waterproof
MUSCULAR
Three types of muscles and examples of the types of tissue that they make up
EXCRETORY
Solvent for waste material in urine
• Water
Vocabulary:
• Kidney: organ that filters excess water, urea, and other waste products from the blood and excretes them out of the body
• Nephrons: basic functional unit of the kidneys that filters out impurities from the blood
• Bowman’s capsule: cup-shaped structure in the upper end of a nephron that encases the glomerulus and is involved in the filtration in the kidneys
• Loop of Henle: section of the nephron that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine
• Glomerulus: small network of capillaries surrounded by Bowman’s capsule in the nephrons of the kidneys
• Renel capillaries: capillaries within the renal cortex
• Ureters: tubes that carry fluid from the kidney to the urinary bladder or the cloaca.
• Urinary bladder: saclike organ where urine is stored before being excreted
• Urethra: tube through which urine is released from the body
• Excretion: the process by which metabolic wastes are removed from the body
• Urine: material that remains after reabsortion; contains urea, excess salts and water
DIGESTIVE
The solvent for food in the digestive system
• Water
Where production of the first digestive enzymes of the gastrointestinal tract occur
• Salivary glands
Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates and proteins
• Carbohydrates
o We get most of our energy from carbohydrates
o First polysaccharide chains are broken into disaccharides, which are then broken down to yield such simple sugars as glucose
o These simply sugars do not have to be digested or broken down
o Humans cannot digest cellulose
o Cellulous provides our digestive system with bulk, or roughage: this stimulation causes our digestive system to work more effectively
• Proteins
o Amino acids are obtained by the digestion of protein
o Before amino acids are used as a source of energy, they must be converted into carbohydrates.
Formula for glucose; the major mineral component of bones and teeth
• C6H12O6
• Calcium is the major mineral component of bones and teeth
•
The mineral important in the functioning of nerves and muscle, and in blood clotting
• Calcium
Vocabulary:
• Teeth: break up food in as part of the process of mechanical digestion
• Salivary glands: secrete the first digestive enzymes of the gastrointestinal tract
• Esophagus: tube that connects the pharynx with the stomach
• Stomach: thick muscular sac in which food is partially digested; located right below the diaphragm in humans
• Small intestine: digestive organ that is both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland; secretes digestive fluids and the hormones insulin and glucagon
• Villi: fingerlike projections that are folded and increase the surface area of the walls of the small intestine
• Liver: large organ that lies above the stomach, secretes bile, and stores excess glucose in the form of glycogen
• Bile: yellow-brown liquid that aids the enzyme lipase to properly digest fats
• Gallbladder: small sac in which bile is stored
• Pancreas: organ that is both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland; secrets digestive fluids and the hormones insulin and glucagon
• Glucose: simple sugar molecule that contains 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms
• Fructose: single sugar found in fruit
• Galactose: single sugar found in
• Lactose: single sugar found in milk
• Maltose: disaccharide made up of two glucose molecules
• Sucruse: table sugar, disaccharide
• Monosaccharide: single sugar
• Simple suger: single sugar, or monosaccharide
• Disaccharide: double sugar
• Polysaccharide: long chains of monosaccharides
SKELETAL
Organs protected by the rib cage
• Heart
• Lungs
Muscle attachment
• Muscles attached to bone by tendons
• Bone to bone = ligaments
Where red and white blood cells are produced
• Bone marrow
Vocabulary:
• Bone:
• Joints:
• Cartilage:
• Ligament:
• Tendon:
• Bone marrow:
I'll finish it tomorrow and repost.
Have fun studying what I have so far.
This is all that I have finished. WARNING. IT IS 17 PAGES LONG.
HONORS BIOLOGY SECOND SEMESTER FINAL EXAM REVIEW
GENETICS AND MEIOSIS (CH 9)
Father of Genetics
• Father of Genetics = Gregor Mendel, priest, born in what is today the Czech Republic
• Studied biology in Vienna, applied this knowledge to pea plants
• Self-pollination: pollen produced by the plant fertilizes egg cells of the same plant. Seeds produced by self-pollination inherit all their characteristics from the plant that bore them.
• Cross-pollination: fertilization of a plant’s egg cells by the pollen of another plant- produces seeds that are the offspring of two different plants.
• Mendel used the technique of cross-pollination to produce plants with different characteristics.
• Plants in monastery were purebred, meaning if allowed to self-pollinate, these plants would produce offspring identical to themselves.
• Mendel studied only a few traits, or characteristics.
• Mendel grew hybrids, or organism produced by crossing plants with differing characters.
• Mendel drew two conclusions from his experiments: individual factors, which do not blend with one another, control each trait of a living thing. These factors are called genes. The different forms of a gene are called alleles. The second conclusion is the principal of dominance. Some alleles are dominant and others are recessive: the effects of a dominant allele are seen even when present with a contrasting recessive allele. The effects of a recessive allele are not observed when the dominant allele is present.
Gamete and somatic cell chromosome numbers
• Homologous: description of chromosomes that occur in pairs; having a corresponding structure
• Diploid: cell that contains both chromosomes (one from each parent) and two complete sets of genes- diploid number represented by 2N
• Haploids: cells that contain a single set of chromosomes- haploid number represented by N
How organisms maintain their chromosome number during reproduction
• Organisms maintain their chromosome number during reproduction through meiosis.
Results of meiosis
• The number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half and the homologous chromosomes that exist in a diploid cell are separated
• Begins with a diploid cell and produces four haploid cells
• Haploid cells that are produced are genetically different from the diploid cell and from each other because homologous chromosomes are separated during the first meiotic division and because crossing-over results in the production of new gene combinations on the chromosomes.
How egg and sperm formation differ in the same species
• Female gamete is called an egg. In female animals, the cell divisions at the end of meiosis I and meiosis II are uneven, so the egg or ovule receives most of the cytoplasm. The other three cells produced in the female during meiosis are known as polar bodies and usually do not participate in reproduction.
• In males, haploid gametes produced by meiosis are called sperm.
The two fundamental rules of probability
• You only get the expected ratio for large numbers of trials.
• Previous events do not affect future outcomes.
• Formula for probability: the number of times a particular event occurs divided by the number of opportunities for the event to occur (number of trials)
Vocabulary:
• Punnett Square: chart showing the possible combinations of genes in the offspring of a cross
• Alleles: one of a number of different forms of the same gene for a specific trait
• Principle of Dominance: Some alleles are dominant and others are recessive: the effects of a dominant allele are seen even when present with a contrasting recessive allele. The effects of a recessive allele are not observed when the dominant allele is present.
• Dominant: form of a gene that is expressed even if present with a contrasting recessive allele
• Recessive: description of a form of a gene (allele) that is only expressed in the homozygous state
• Purebred: (homozygous) organism that has two identical alleles for a particular trait
• Hybrid: (heterozygous) organism with two different alleles for a particular trait; organism resulting from a cross between dissimilar parents
• Phenotype: physical characteristics of an organism
• Genotype: genetic makeup of an organism
• Principle of Segregation: the two forms of each gene are segregated during the formation of reproductive cells
• Principle of Independent Assortment: the genes for different traits may assort independently of one another
• Diploid number: represented by 2N
• Haploid number: represented by N
• Gametes: specialized reproductive cells involved in sexual reproduction
• Probability: likelihood that a particular event will occur
• Meiosis: process that produces haploid cells from diploid cells
• Homologous chromosomes: chromosomes that occur in pairs; have corresponding structures
• Crossing over: process in meiosis I in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids; results in the exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes and produces new combinations of genes.
CLASSIFICATION
Order of classification categories from largest to smallest
• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species
Six kingdom classification system
• Eubacteria
o Prokaryotes
o Surrounded by a cell wall composed of complex carbohydrates that protects the cell from injury
o Within the cell wall is a cell membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm
o Example: cyanobacteria, prochlorobacteria
• Archaebacteria
o Prokaryotes
o Lack an important carbohydrate found in cell walls of nearly all Eubacteria
o Example: methanogens
• Protista
o Contains all single-celled eukaryotic organisms
o Divided into three groups: animallike protists, plantlike protists, and funguslike protists.
o Example: parameciums
• Fungi
o Build cell walls that do not contain cellulose
o Heterotrophic- does not carry on photosynthesis
o Many fungi have nuclei, but they do not always have separate cells divided by complete cell walls
o Example: fly agaric
• Plantae
o Multicellular, have cell walls that contain cellulose, and are autotrophic (can carry on photosynthesis using chlorophyll)
o Examples: flowering plants, mosses, ferns
• Animalia
o Multicellular, heterotrophic, and have cell membranes without cell walls
o Examples: sponges, elephants
Vocabulary:
• Kingdom: group of closely related phyla
• Phylum: group of closely related classes
• Class: group of closely related orders
• Order: group of closely related families
• Family: group of closely related genera
• Genus: group of closely related species
• Species: group of organisms that share similar characteristics and can interbreed with one another to produce fertile offsprings
• Binomial nomenclature: classification system in which each organism is given a two-part scientific name
• Linnaeus: developed the system of binomial nomenclature
• Scientific name: The first part of the name is the genus name. The second part of the name is the species name, usually a Latin description of some important characteristic of the organism. The genus name but not the species name is capitalized and the whole name is written in italics.
• Cytochrome c: Protein that virtually every organism uses in its electron transport chain. However, each species’ cycochrome c differs slightly from the cytochrome c of other species.
• Prokaryote: single-celled organism whose cells do not have a nucleus
• Eukaryote: organism made up of cells that have a nucleus
VIRUSES AND BACTERIA
Structure of a virus
• Composed of a core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. The capsid protects the nucleic acid core. Depending on the virus, the nucleic acid core is either DNA or RNA but never both.
• Bacteriophage: viruses that invade bacteria. Consists of a head region (composed of a capsid, or protein coat), a nucleic acid core, and a tail.
• Shapes of viruses: rod-shaped, tadpole-shaped, many-sided, helical, or cubelike.
Vocabulary:
• Vaccines: injection of a weakened or mild form of a pathogen used to produce immunity
• Aerobes:
• Anaerobes:
• Obligate aerobes: organism that requires a constant supply of oxygen to live
• Obligate anaerobes: organism that lives only in the absence of oxygen
• Facultative anaerobes: organism that can survive with or without oxygen
• Cocci: spherical bacteria
• Bacilli: rod-shaped bacteria
• Spirilla: spiral-shaped bacteria
• Antibiotics: drug or natural compound that can attack and destroy certain microorganisms
• Binary fission: type of asexual reproduction in which an organism divides to produce two identical daughter cells
MOSSES
Classification of bryophytes
• Includes the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
• Have life cycles that involve an alternation of generations between a haploid gametophyte and a diploid sporophyte
• Need only water for reproduction to occur
• Lack a protective surface covering to keep water from evaporating from their cells
• Lack true roots
• Lack water conducting tubes that are found in higher plants
Process water passes from cell to cell by
• Osmosis and by means of surface tension around the stems
Type of habitat required by bryophytes
• Wet
The part of moss plants you might observe on a walk through the woods
• Clumps of haploid moss gametophytes growing close together.
Vocabulary:
• Byrophyta: phylum that includes the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
• Spores: a small, usually single-celled reproductive body that is highly resistant to desiccation and heat and is capable of growing into a new organism
• Rhizoids: rootlike structures that anchor the plant to the ground
• Gametophyte: haploid plant that produces gametes
• Sporophyte: diploid plant that produces spores
FERNS
Classification of ferns
• Have true vascular tissues: transport water and products of photosynthesis throughout the plant. Two types: xylem, associated with the movement of water from the roots to all parts of the plant, and phloem, responsible for the transport of nutrients and the products of photosynthesis.
• Have strong roots
• Have creeping or underground stems called rhizomes
• Have large leaves called fronds
• Most abundant in wet, or seasonally wet, habitats around the world
The part of plants we recognize as ferns
• Fronds
• Strong roots
• Rhizomes
Vocabulary:
• Tracheophytes: any of various vascular plants, including seed plants and ferns, having a conducting system of xylem and phloem.
• Seedless plants: plants that reproduce by spores
• Prothallium: a small, flat, delicate structure produced by a germinating spore and bearing sex organs. It is the gametophyte of ferns and some other plants.
• Frond: large leaf of a fern
• Sori: plural of sorus
• Sporangia: a single-celled or many-celled structure in which spores are produced
• Sporophytes: the spore-producing phase in the life cycle of a plant that exhibits alternation of generations.
• Gametophytes: the gamete-producing phase in a plant characterized by alternation of generations.
PLANTS
Classification of plants, common name for some plant subphyla and classes
• Kingdom Plantae
o Divided into Nonvascular and Vascular plants
• Nonvascular phyla: bryophyta
• Classes: mosses, liverworts, hornworts
• Vascular phyla: tracheophyta
• Subphlya: seedless plants, spermophyta
Two groups of seed plants and their reproductive structures, two groups of angiosperms
• Gymnosperms: (naked seed) each seed is protected by a seed coat, but the seed is not covered by the cone.
o Examples: Cycads, ginkgoes
o Conifers: commonly called evergreens, most abundant gymnosperms today. Examples: pines, spruce, fir, cedars, sequoias, redwoods, and yew
o Reproduction: produce two kinds of cones. Male cones, called pollen cones, produce male gametophytes in the form of pollen grains. Female cones, called seed cones, house the female gametophytes that produce ovules.
• Angiosperms: flowering plants; all angiosperms reproduce sexually through their flowers in a process that involves pollination
o Fruit: ripened ovary
o Monocotlyedonae or monocats: includes corn, wheat, lilies, daffodils, orchids, and palms.
• Have one seed leaf, or cotyledon.
• Veins in monocot leaves usually parallel to each other
• Petals and other petal parts found in threes or multiples of threes
• Xylem and phloem tissues are gatherer into vascular bunches that are scattered throughout the stem
• Bundle of xylem and phloem alternate with each other in a circular arrangement
• Most have stems and roots that do not grow thicker from year to year
o Dicotyledonae, or dicots: includes roses, clover, tomatoes, oaks, and daises.
• Start off with two seed leaves
• Veins in dicot leaves form a branching network
• Petals and other flower parts occur in fours or fives or in multiples of four or five
• Vascular bundles arranged in a ring near the outside of the stem
• A single mass of xylem tissue forms an X in the center of the root, and bundles of phloem tissue are positioned between the arms of the “X”
• Some dicot stems and roots can grow thicker from year to year
Flower structures and functions, function of xylem and phloem
• Roots: absorb water and dissolved nutrients from moist soil, anchor plants in the ground, hold plants upright and prevent them from being knocked over by the wind and rain
• Stems: hold a plant’s leaves up to the sun
• Leaves: the organs in which plants capture the sun’s energy
• Flowers: consist of pistil, stamen
• Seeds: structures that protect the zygotes of seed plants; seed coat (hull) protects embryo
• Xylem: vascular tissues primarily responsible for carrying water and dissolved nutrients from the roots to stems and leaves
• Phloem: carries the products of photosynthesis and certain other substances from one part of the plant to another
Examples and meaning of names of gymnosperms, angiosperms, monocots, dicots
• Gymnosperms: naked seed, means that the seeds do not have a hull
• Angiosperms: flower seed, means that the seeds
• Monocots: have one seed leaf
• Dicots: have two seed leaves
Characteristics of monocots and dicots; vascular arrangement, veins in leaves, number of flower parts, number of cotyledons, change in stem thickness
• Characteristics of monocots:
Have one seed leaf, or cotyledon.
Veins in monocot leaves usually parallel to each other
Petals and other petal parts found in threes or multiples of threes
Xylem and phloem tissues are gatherer into vascular bunches that are scattered throughout the stem
Bundle of xylem and phloem alternate with each other in a circular arrangement
Most have stems and roots that do not grow thicker from year to year
• Characteristics of dicots:
Start off with two seed leaves
Veins in dicot leaves form a branching network
Petals and other flower parts occur in fours or fives or in multiples of four or five
Vascular bundles arranged in a ring near the outside of the stem
A single mass of xylem tissue forms an X in the center of the root, and bundles of phloem tissue are positioned between the arms of the “X”
Some dicot stems and roots can grow thicker from year to year
PLANT REPRODUCTION
Reproductive structures of gymnosperms
• Reproduce by cones
Male gametophyte of seed plants
•
Sterile flower parts and their functions and locations
Reproductive flower parts and their functions
Ovule development into seed parts and ovary into fruit
Development of seed into seed plant and functions of seed parts during development
Which generation of seed plants is the large and obvious one
Examples of plants that exhibit seed dispersal
Vocabulary
• Spores:
• Cones:
• Flowers:
• Fruit: ripened ovary
• Scale:
• Petals:
• Sepals:
• Corolla:
• Calyx:
• Pistil:
• Stigma:
• Style:
• Ovary:
• Ovules:
• Stamen:
• Anther:
• Filament:
• Pollen grain:
• Pollen chamber:
• Gametophyte:
• Fertilization:
• Pollination:
• Germination:
• Endosperm:
• Seed dispersal:
• Bud:
• Embryo:
• Cotyledon:
• Seed coat: hull
ECOLOGY
Vocabulary:
• Ecology: the study of the interactions of organisms with one another and with their physical surroundings.
• Biosphere: a living globe. The biosphere is that part of the Earth in which life exists. It includes all the areas of land, air, and water, and the life that populates those areas.
• Ecosystem: smaller unit of the biosphere: consists of a given area’s physical features (abiotic factors) and living organisms (biotic factors)
• Community: organisms living together in an ecosystem
• Population: collection of individuals of the same species in a given area whose members can breed with one another
• Biome: environment that has a characteristic climax community
• Tundra: biomes covering Northern North America, Asia, and Europe. The tundra is the northernmost biome.
• Permafrost: a layer of permanently frozen subsoil
• Taiga: biomes located south of the tundra and dominated by great coniferous, or cone-bearing, forests of fir, pine, and spruce. The taiga spans across much of North America and Asia, with a small band reaching into Norway and Sweden.
• Temperate deciduous forest: biomes covering the Eastern coast of the U.S., the southernmost coast of Canada, most of Europe, and parts of Japan, China, and Australia.
• Grassland: usually found in the interior portions of many continents; vast areas covered with grasses and small leafy plants. Includes: plains and prairies of North America, steppes of Russia, veld of South America, and pampas of Argentina.
• Prairies: an extensive area of flat or rolling, predominantly treeless grassland, especially the large tract or plain of central North America.
• Velds: any of the open grazing areas of southern Africa.
• Savannas: a flat grassland of tropical or subtropical regions
• Tropical rain forest: biome found in parts of the world where temperature stays warm and rain falls year round; covers large areas of South America, Southeast Asia, and Central America.
• Desert: biomes that occur where there is less than 25 cm of rainfall/year.
• Freshwater biome: rivers, streams, and lakes: provides much of our drinking water and is an important source of food.
• Marine biome: vast habitats of the ocean, covering most of the Earth’s surface.
• Deep-sea zone: area of high pressure, cold temperature, and total darkness in the ocean
• Estuary: found at the boundary between fresh water and salt water.
• Producer: organism that is able to make its own food from inorganic substances
• Consumer: get their energy directly or indirectly from consumers
• Decomposer: organisms that obtain their energy from nonliving matter
• Scavenger: an animal, such as a bird or insect, that feeds on dead or decaying matter.
• Primary consumer: feed directly on producers
ANIMAL KINGDOM - VERTEBRATES
Classes of all animals that belong to phylum Chordata
Characteristics of each class
Examples of each class
Characteristics of chordates during early embryonic life
Frog heart characteristics
Characteristics of the three groups of mammals
Mammalian heart characteristics
How do mammals help to control their body heat
Vocabulary:
• Chordata:
• Agnatha:
• Chondrichthyes:
• Osteichythyes:
• Amphibia:
• Reptilia:
• Aves:
• Mammalia:
• Vertebrate:
• Tunicate:
• Hollow dorsal nerve cord:
• Notochord:
• Closed circulatory system:
• Pharyngeal gills:
• Invertebrate chordates:
• Vertebrate chordates:
• Jawless fish:
• Cartilaginous fish:
• Bony fish:
• Scales:
• Fins:
• Pectoral fins:
• Amphibian:
• Reptile:
• Bird:
• Mammal:
• Ectotherm:
• Endotherm:
• Cold-blooded:
• Warm-blooded:
• Viviparous:
• Forelimbs:
• Hindlimbs:
• Lamprey:
• Hagfish:
• Skate:
• Ray:
• Tuna:
• Goldfish:
• Nictitating membrane:
• Monotremes:
• Marsupials:
• Placental mammals:
• Diaphragm
SYSTEMS
Ten systems, major organs, and functions
• Circulatory
o Major organ: heart
o Other organs: arteries, veins, capillaries, blood, plasma
o Functions: carries oxygen, hormones, and nutrients to the cells and waste products away from the cells
• Respiratory
o Major organ: lungs
o Other organs: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, alveoli, diaphragm, bronchi (bronchioles)
o Function: bring in oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide
• Integumentary
o Major organ: skin
o Other organs: glands (sweat and sebaceous oil glands) hair, nerves
o Function: protects the body, helps to control body temperature, gets rid of salt wastes, gateway for sensation of pressure, heat, cold, pain, etc.
• Muscular
o Major organ: muscles
o Other organs: tendons, muscles (skeletal, smooth, cardiac)
o Function: Allows movement one way (contracts)
• Endocrine
o Major organ: pituitary gland
o Other organs: pancreas, adrenal gland, thyroid, parathyroid, ovaries, tests
o Functions: pancreas regulates blood sugar, thyroid regulates metabolism, parathyroid regulates calcium
• Nervous
o Major organs: brain and spinal chord
o Other organs:
o Function: receives and relays information about activities within the body and monitors and responds to internal and external changes
• Excretory
o Major organ: kidneys (consists of nephrons, glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule)
o Other organs: ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
o Functions: filters waste, extra water, and salts from the body
• Reproductive
o Major organ: Male: testes (consists of scrotum, seminiferous tubules) Female: ovaries
o Other organs: Male: epididymis, vas deferns, urethra, prostate gland. Female: Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina
o Function: produces, stores, nourishes, and releases specialized sex cells (called gametes) in order to produce offspring for the continuation of a species
• Digestive
o Major organ: small intestine
o Other organs: mouth, teeth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, large intestine, anus, salivary gland, pancreas, liver
o Function: breaks down food into simple molecules that can be absorbed by the cells for growth
• Skeletal
o Major organ: bones
o Other organs: bone marrow, joints (cartilage, tendons, ligaments)
o Function: supports the animal, protects internal organs, provides a system of levers for movement, produces blood cells, stores calcium and phospherus
The largest organ in the human body
• Skin
Where water loss occurs from the body
• Excretory system
CIRCULATORY
Function and anatomy of heart: right side, left side, atrium, ventricle, coronary artery
• Right side of the heart
o Pumps blood from the body into the lungs; blood deposits carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen
• Left side of the heart
o Pumps oxygen rich blood to the rest of the body
• Atrium, ventricle, coronary artery: see vocabulary
What happens when infection occurs
• White blood cells protect the body against invasion by foreign cells or substances.
o Some white blood cells destroy bacteria or cells by phagocytosis (large cells are taken inside a cell and digested)
o Others make special proteins called antibodies
o Some release special chemicals to help the body resist disease and fight off infection
Largest blood vessel
Vocabulary:
• Deoxygenated blood: blood low in oxygen
• Oxygenated blood: blood rich in oxygen
• Heart: hollow muscular organ that contracts at regular intervals, forcing blood through the circulatory system
• Aorta: large artery in mammals that carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle of the heart to all parts of the body except the lungs.
• Vena cava: large blood vessel that brings blood from all parts of the body except the lungs to the heart
• Coronary artery: either one of the two arteries that originate in the aorta and supply blood to the muscular tissue of the heart
• Artery: tough, flexible blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart to the tissues of the body
• Vein: blood vessel that collects blood from the body and carries it back to the heart
• Arteriole: one of the small terminal branches of an artery, esp. one that connects with a capillary
• Venule: a small vein, especially one joining capillaries to larger veins.
• Capillary: small thin-walled blood vessel that allows materials to diffuse between the blood and the tissue
• Blood: fluid medium of the circulatory system
• Lymph: clear, watery, sometimes faintly yellowish fluid derived from body tissues that contains white blood cells and circulates throughout the lymphatic system, returning to the venous bloodstream through the thoracic duct. Lymph removes bacteria and certain proteins from the tissues, transports fat from the small intestine, and supplies mature lymphocytes to the blood.
• Red blood cell: blood cell, also known as a erthyrocyte, produced in bone marrow and filled with hemoglobin to transport oxygen; in humans, erythrocytes lack a nucleus
• White blood cell: blood cell produced in bone marrow that protects the body against invasion by foreign cells or substances
• Atria: plural of atrium
• Ventricle: muscular chamber that pumps blood out of the heart
RESPIRATORY
Anatomy of the lung and the passageway of air through the system
• Anatomy of lung
o Trachea branches into left and right bronchi- each enters the lung on its respective side
o Bronchi eventually lead into bronchioles
o Bronchioles subdivide until they end in clusters of tiny hollow air sacs called alveoli
• Passageway of air through the system
o Air enters through the mouth or nose into pharynx
o From there, air moves to trachea
o Air then moves to larynx
o Then passes downward into the chest cavity through the trachea
o Then moves through the bronchi into the lungs
o Then passes through bronchioles to the alveoli
How diaphragm works and is controlled
Contents of air during inhalation and exhalation; How and where gas exchange occurs
Specialization of cells that line the trachea
Vocabulary:
• Nasal cavity:
• Pharynx:
• Trachea:
• Bronchus:
• Bronchioles:
• Alveoli:
• Larynx:
• Vocal cords:
• Voice box:
• Adam’s apple:
• Diaphragm:
• Hemoglobin:
INTEGUMENTARY
Organs contained in this system
• Skin
• Glands (sweat and sebaceous oil glands)
• Hair
• nerves
How integument works to cool body temperature; How hair is maintained
• To conserve heat on a cold day, the blood vessels in the dermis narrow, helping to limit heat loss
• On hot days, the blood vessels widen, warming the skin and increasing heat loss
• Sweat glands produce sweat that evaporates and cools the skin
• Sebaceous oil glands produce an oily secretion that maintains the condition of each individual hair
Vocabulary
• Epidermis: outermost layer of skin
• Skin: composed of the epidermis and dermis; largest organ in the body
• Hair: produced by cells at the base of structures called hair follicles, which are tubelike pockets of epidermal hairs that extend into the dermis
• Nails: produce by the area of rapidly dividing cells located at the tips of fingers and toes
• Sweat glands: produce the watery secretion known as sweat, which contains salts, water, and other compounds
• Sebaceous glands: produce an oily secretion known as sebum at spreads out along the surface of the skin and keeps the epidermis flexible and waterproof
MUSCULAR
Three types of muscles and examples of the types of tissue that they make up
EXCRETORY
Solvent for waste material in urine
• Water
Vocabulary:
• Kidney: organ that filters excess water, urea, and other waste products from the blood and excretes them out of the body
• Nephrons: basic functional unit of the kidneys that filters out impurities from the blood
• Bowman’s capsule: cup-shaped structure in the upper end of a nephron that encases the glomerulus and is involved in the filtration in the kidneys
• Loop of Henle: section of the nephron that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine
• Glomerulus: small network of capillaries surrounded by Bowman’s capsule in the nephrons of the kidneys
• Renel capillaries: capillaries within the renal cortex
• Ureters: tubes that carry fluid from the kidney to the urinary bladder or the cloaca.
• Urinary bladder: saclike organ where urine is stored before being excreted
• Urethra: tube through which urine is released from the body
• Excretion: the process by which metabolic wastes are removed from the body
• Urine: material that remains after reabsortion; contains urea, excess salts and water
DIGESTIVE
The solvent for food in the digestive system
• Water
Where production of the first digestive enzymes of the gastrointestinal tract occur
• Salivary glands
Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates and proteins
• Carbohydrates
o We get most of our energy from carbohydrates
o First polysaccharide chains are broken into disaccharides, which are then broken down to yield such simple sugars as glucose
o These simply sugars do not have to be digested or broken down
o Humans cannot digest cellulose
o Cellulous provides our digestive system with bulk, or roughage: this stimulation causes our digestive system to work more effectively
• Proteins
o Amino acids are obtained by the digestion of protein
o Before amino acids are used as a source of energy, they must be converted into carbohydrates.
Formula for glucose; the major mineral component of bones and teeth
• C6H12O6
• Calcium is the major mineral component of bones and teeth
•
The mineral important in the functioning of nerves and muscle, and in blood clotting
• Calcium
Vocabulary:
• Teeth: break up food in as part of the process of mechanical digestion
• Salivary glands: secrete the first digestive enzymes of the gastrointestinal tract
• Esophagus: tube that connects the pharynx with the stomach
• Stomach: thick muscular sac in which food is partially digested; located right below the diaphragm in humans
• Small intestine: digestive organ that is both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland; secretes digestive fluids and the hormones insulin and glucagon
• Villi: fingerlike projections that are folded and increase the surface area of the walls of the small intestine
• Liver: large organ that lies above the stomach, secretes bile, and stores excess glucose in the form of glycogen
• Bile: yellow-brown liquid that aids the enzyme lipase to properly digest fats
• Gallbladder: small sac in which bile is stored
• Pancreas: organ that is both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland; secrets digestive fluids and the hormones insulin and glucagon
• Glucose: simple sugar molecule that contains 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms
• Fructose: single sugar found in fruit
• Galactose: single sugar found in
• Lactose: single sugar found in milk
• Maltose: disaccharide made up of two glucose molecules
• Sucruse: table sugar, disaccharide
• Monosaccharide: single sugar
• Simple suger: single sugar, or monosaccharide
• Disaccharide: double sugar
• Polysaccharide: long chains of monosaccharides
SKELETAL
Organs protected by the rib cage
• Heart
• Lungs
Muscle attachment
• Muscles attached to bone by tendons
• Bone to bone = ligaments
Where red and white blood cells are produced
• Bone marrow
Vocabulary:
• Bone:
• Joints:
• Cartilage:
• Ligament:
• Tendon:
• Bone marrow:
I'll finish it tomorrow and repost.
Have fun studying what I have so far.