(no subject)
Personal Contact with People Who Are Gay or Lesbian
May Change Students’ Attitudes in Positive Ways
Abstract
An experimental strategy is designed to provide insight into one method of changing students’ attitudes in positive ways toward gay and lesbian people, using an in vivo experience and a pretest/posttest design. The experimenter focuses on two dependent variables: conditioned attitudes about gay and lesbian people and the amount of prior contact with gay and lesbian people. By exposing students of social work and counseling to gay and lesbian people, and helping them understand the fundamental dynamics of the gay and lesbian human condition as it is articulated by gay and lesbian people, the experimenter hopes to enhance the education and, hence, the practice of counseling for social work and counseling graduates of the University of Kentucky.
Empirical evidence shows that over the years, attitudes toward gay and lesbian people have experienced a positive trend. From 1978-1989, only 43 of 6,661 articles published in the six major psychological journals discussed the mental health issues unique to gay and lesbian people (Buhrke, Ben-Ezra, Hurley, & Ruprecht, 1992). Today, although the numbers are not so readily available, it can be reasonably assumed that the number of journal articles reflecting the gay and lesbian human experience vastly exceeds 43 and may in fact be in the hundreds. We may also discover a similar trend with regard to overall social acceptance.
A 1970 and 1984 nationwide survey found that approximately 70% of the American public believed that homosexuality was always wrong. In a more recent 1996 poll, the number believing that homosexuality was always wrong had fallen to 56% (Newman, Dannenfelser, & Benishek, 2002). It can therefore be inferred that the gap between people who are heterosexuals and homosexuals in the United States is gradually narrowing.
Part of this cultural awakening in our American society may be due to a change in the visibility of gay and lesbian people, after centuries of enduring unrestrained persecution. We may now see gay and lesbian people experiencing less shame, believing instead in the freedom to express their opinions, beliefs and affections in public places (Whitbeck, Chen, Hoyt, Tyler, & Johnson, 2004; Cheng, 2004). Although it may appear, at least from the perspective of a person who is gay or lesbian, that we are moving toward a more inclusive society, for some, these attempts at being a part of the fabric of every-day life can make them vulnerable to violence.
In 2003 (the most recent year for which figures are available) 1,430 gays and lesbians were victims of 1,239 hate crimes, by 1,313 perpetrators, nationwide (Crime in the United States, 2003). Studies have shown that victims of hate crimes have needed as many as five years to recover from the incident. By contrast, victims of non-bias crimes experienced a decrease in crime-related psychological problems within 2 years of the crime (U.S. Department of Justice, 1997). When appropriate support and resources are made available soon after the incident occurs, victims of hate crime may recover more quickly and be less likely to develop poor responses to future victimization.
Gay and lesbian people who have been victims of crime, not surprisingly, may opt to avoid the help of a therapist, for fear of continued ridicule, low self-esteem and fear of disclosing their sexual identity. This fear, when compounded by the stigma that still clouds anything associated with homosexuality in today’s dominant, neo-conservative society, may make it less likely that gay and lesbian people will present themselves for mental health assistance if their issues are related to their sexuality (Coleman & Remafedi, 1989). When these issues are considered in conjunction with the possibility that mental health practitioners themselves may harbor homophobic attitudes, the ordeal of seeking mental health assistance becomes even more perplexing for the gay and lesbian person (Ben-Ari, 2001; Morrow, 1996). Gays and lesbians may develop alternative methods to reduce their future exposure to ridicule, violence, threats of physical harm, verbal abuse and other types of potential aggression directed against them, such as developing non- or poorly working corollaries, giving rise to various psychosocial problems (Fone, 2000). The failure to recognize this unique feature of the homosexual human condition may complicate the delivery of appropriate, ethical and sound mental health treatment.
Even before the gay or lesbian individual is comfortable with his or her sexuality or “out,” he or she must first cope with the consequences of doing so. The psychological process of awareness and coming to know that one is homosexual can occur over a long period of time, frequently culminating in extreme emotional confusion (Gorsiorek, 1988). Often the homosexual person will struggle alone with this developmental event. Some may reject the thought entirely, and avoid the internal fears of establishing a homosexual identity. They may undergo an acute state of denial, resulting in the adoption of socially acceptable behaviors such as “academic or athletic overachievement, perfectionism, or over-involvement in extracurricular activities” (Fontaine & Hammond, 1996). By contrast, as a reaction to “undesirable” thoughts and attractions, individuals may exaggerate their perception of heterosexuality, favoring it above their true identity. Some may engage in promiscuous heterosexual sexual behavior. Females may become pregnant to establish a heterosexual identity. Males may marry and father children. Both sexes may carry on extramarital, homosexual affairs in secret (Fontaine & Hammond, 1996).
Each of these responses to the awakening that one may be homosexual can lead to long lasting hardship, and there is concern over the preparation of social workers and counseling psychologists to fully grasp the mental health issues facing people who are lesbian or gay (Ben-Ari, 2001). A 1987 survey conducted to discover levels of homophobia among 71 graduate level social workers and counseling psychologists found that 31.2% of those polled reported homophobic attitudes (Berkman & Zinberg, 1997). Berkman and Zinberg (1997) also found that 11.2% of their sample of 187 heterosexual social workers expressed homophobic attitudes. An additional study involving 235 social work, counseling, and psychology faculty and students from five Israeli universities revealed that the faculty had the highest levels of homophobia, followed by social work and then psychology students
(Ben-Are, 2001).
Not surprisingly, counselors may be making assumptions about the sexuality of their clients - assumptions that could interfere with their effective treatment. A study of bias in counselor trainees revealed that 83% of those who participated in the study assumed that their clients were heterosexual (Pope, Barret, Szymanski, and Chung, 2004). Finally, a 1987 survey of psychologists found that nearly 30% of those responding felt that treating homosexuality as pathological constituted an ethical practice (Newman, Dannenfelser, & Benishek, 2002). Having available culturally appropriate counseling for gay and lesbian people, establishing mental health interventions centered on the special issues this group presents, and offering appropriate advocacy and social action interventions may prove useful in effectively supporting this population (Pope, Barret, Szymanski, and Chung, 2004).
By examining the symbolic beliefs that students of social work and counseling may hold about gay and lesbian people, we may be able to offer suggestions that would help support a mental health practice that celebrates the unique character of gay and lesbian people, focusing on their particular position in our society and encouraging their healthy human development.
Method
Participants
This study focuses on the University of Kentucky master’s level social work and counseling program students who are at the onset of their academic program. Participants will be asked to participate in a forum hosted by the colleges of social work and counseling which will focus on minority awareness. Only data collected from participants who indicate that they are heterosexual and have had limited experiences with gay and lesbian people will be used in the analysis. (Among other demographic data questions, students will be asked to indicate their sexual orientation on a simple questionnaire and their exposure to gay and lesbian people.) All volunteers will be encouraged to attend, however.
Design
The study will be a simple pre-test/post-test design. The main dependent variables will consist of the Gay/Lesbian Conditioned Association Test (CAT), which will be administered twice, pre-treatment and post-treatment. The independent measure will be the in vivo exposure to gay and lesbian people.
Materials
Only three components of the Conditioned Association Test (CAT), which consists of twelve measures in its entirety, will be used. Specifically, the Gay/Lesbian CAT, Christian People CAT, and Obese People CAT will be administered. These surveys are general tools with the ability to determine how an individual feels about certain target groups. Reliability studies of the CAT indicate high reliability for the full scale (alpha coefficients ranging from .90 to .96) Additionally, participants will be asked to read and sign an informed consent form and fill out a demographic items questionnaire. Finally, an information sheet detailing the date, time, and place of the forum will be provided.
Procedure
University of Kentucky faculty who teach in the graduate social work or counseling program will be asked to allot a few minutes at the beginning of their class for the experimenter to solicit volunteers for the study. The students will be led to believe that they will be taking part in a study that may enhance their experiences with culturally diverse groups. The experimenter will record the names and contact information of those who volunteer. The experimenter will contact the students and discuss the parameters of the study and set a group meeting date and time.
Upon meeting en masse, the participants will be told that the two-hour forum, which will include lunch, will feature four target groups: gay and lesbian, obese and thin, Arab and Muslim, and young and old. The participants will be told that each target group will make a presentation and take questions from the participants.
Participants will be given packages of material consisting of a pencil, the Gay/Lesbian CAT, Christian People CAT, and the Obese People CAT, the informed consent form and the demographics questionnaire. Upon returning the materials, participants will be given an information sheet detailing the date, time, and location of the forum.
The speakers will be solicited using the campus newspaper. No compensation will be provided. Speakers, representing gay and lesbian, Christian, and obese people will be selected to speak based on their identity as a member of these target groups. The speakers will present information on such topics as dating, sex, relationships, hobbies and other interests. All information will have a focus on their lives as a member of the particular target group they are representing and how they have adjusted (or not adjusted) to being a member of the group. Following each presentation, each student will be given the opportunity to ask questions.
The Gay/Lesbian CAT will be used, primarily, in the evaluation of data for this study. Pretest and Posttest answers to questions comprising the Gay/Lesbian CAT will be calculated and a t-test will be performed to analyze for significance of change. Additionally, the following factors will be collected from the demographic worksheet and used in the further analysis of the CAT survey results: X1 (≤24 [1] ≥25 [2]) X2 (Male [1] Female [2]) X3 (White [1] Black [2] Hispanic [3] Asian [4] Other [5]) X4 (Social Work Major [1] Counseling Major [2] Other [3]). Data collected as a result of the administering the other CAT surveys may be used to discover a trend between attitude toward gay and lesbian people and overall view of the three target groups. The variables to be analyzed may be organized as follows: Gay/Lesbian CAT (CAT1), Christian People CAT (CAT2), and the Obese People CAT (CAT3).
The format for additional analysis may be designed as follows: (Participant 1 = (CAT1), X1 (≤24 [1] ≥25 [2]) X2 (Male [1] Female [2]) X3 (White [1] Black [2] Hispanic [3] Asian [4] Other [5]) X4 (Social Work Major [1] Counseling Major [2] Other [3]) and so on. (Participant 1 = (CAT2), X1 (≤24 [1] ≥25 [2]) X2 (Male [1] Female [2]) X3 (White [1] Black [2] Hispanic [3] Asian [4] Other [5]) X4 (Social Work Major [1] Counseling Major [2] Other [3]) and so on.
Results
Although the literature does not offer a great deal of information related to this type of study, earlier studies have found that prior contact with gay and lesbian people, generally, has been successful in predicting favorable attitude change (Mohipp & Morry, 2004). Considering that this study can serve as a “period of prior contact” for the students, there may be a similar favorable impact on students’ attitude. Early exposure to gay and lesbian people may enhance the University of Kentucky’s social work and counseling program’s gay and lesbian awareness efforts. More broadly, by enhancing student knowledge of the gay and lesbian person’s human condition prior to their engaging this population in a therapeutic setting, we may be helping to increase the potential for an uncomplicated, appropriate, ethical, and sound mental health experience.
Discussion
Gay and lesbian people may struggle with accommodating cultural expectations that are far removed from their actual lives, potentially resulting in the development of dissonant personality characteristics, making them a likely group to be in need of counseling assistance (Portes, Sandhu, and Longwell-Grise, 2002). It has been theorized that the harshest consequence of this form of discrimination is the damaging affect it may have on the development of a positive gay or lesbian identity (Liang & Alimo, 2005; Erikson, 1968). This level of developmental tension may be understood as an important risk factor in the etiology of suicide or other self-destructive behaviors (Erikson, 1968; Portes, Daya, & Longwell-Grice, 2002). There is concern that homophobia among helping professionals may have a negative impact on the provision of mental health services for people who are gay or lesbian (Oles, Black, & Cramer, 1999; Newman, Dannenfelser & Benishek, 2002). We must make every effort to ensure that gay and lesbian people have access to unbiased mental health assistance.
References
Ben-Ari, A. (2001). Homosexuality and heterosexism: Views from academics in the helping
professions. British Journal of Social Work, 31, 119-131. Retrieved September 4, 2005
from ProQuest database.
Buhrke, R, Ben-Ezra, L., Hurleym, M. & Ruprecht, L. (1992). Content analysis
methodological critique of articles concerning lesbian and gay issues in counseling
journals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39(1), 91-99. Retrieved September 5, 2005
from ProQuest database.
Cheng, Z. (2004). Hate crimes, posttraumatic stress disorder and implications for counseling
lesbians and gay men. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 35(4), 8-17.
Retrieved September 8, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Clarke, V., Kitzinger, C., & Potter, J. (2004). ‘Kids are just cruel anyway’: Lesbian and gay
parents’ talk about homophobic bullying. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 43(4),
531-551. Retrieved September 5, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Coleman, E. & Remafedi, G. (1989). Gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents: A critical
challenge to counselors. Journal of Counseling and Development, 68, 36-47. Retrieved
September 2, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W.W. Norton.
Fone, B. (2000). Homophobia. New York; Henry Holt and Company.
Fontaine, J. & Hammond, N. (1996). Counseling issues with gay and lesbian adolescents
Adolescence, 12, 817-831. Retrieved September 9, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Gonsiorek, J. (1988). Mental health issues of gay and lesbian adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 9, 114-122. Retrieved September 10, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Liang, C. & Alimo, C. (2005). The impact of white heterosexual students’ interactions on
attitudes toward lesbian, gay and bisexual people: A longitudinal study. Journal of College
Student Development, 46(3), 237-251. Retrieved September 5, 2005 from ProQuest
database.
Morrow, D. (1996). Heterosexism: Hidden discrimination in social work education. The
Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 5(4), 1-16. Retrieved September 3, 2005 from
ProQuest database.
Newman, B., Dannenfelser, P, and Benishek (2002). Assessing beginning social work and
counseling students’ acceptance of lesbians and gay men. Journal of Social Work, 38(2),
273-278. Retrieved September 5, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Oles, T, Black, B., & Cramer, E. (1999). From attitude change to effective practice:
Exploring the relationship. Journal of Social Work Education, 35, 87-100. Retrieved
September 5, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Pope, M., Barret, B, Symanski, D., Chung, Y., et. al. (2004). Culturally appropriate career
counseling with gay and lesbian clients. The Career Development Quarterly, 53(2), 158-
178. Retrieved September 4, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Portes, P., Sandhu, D., & Longwell-Grice, R. (2002). Understanding adolescent suicide: A
psychosocial interpretation of developmental and contextual factors. Adolescence,
37(148), 805-815. Retrieved September 5, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Summary of Hate Crime Statistics http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0004885.html
Whitbeck, L., Chen, X., Hoyt, D., Tyler, K., & Johnson, D. (2004). Mental Disorder,
substance strategies, and victimization among gay, lesbian, and bisexual homeless and
runaway adolescents. The Journal of Sex Research, 41(4), 329-334. Retrieved September
5, 2005 from ProQuest database.
May Change Students’ Attitudes in Positive Ways
Abstract
An experimental strategy is designed to provide insight into one method of changing students’ attitudes in positive ways toward gay and lesbian people, using an in vivo experience and a pretest/posttest design. The experimenter focuses on two dependent variables: conditioned attitudes about gay and lesbian people and the amount of prior contact with gay and lesbian people. By exposing students of social work and counseling to gay and lesbian people, and helping them understand the fundamental dynamics of the gay and lesbian human condition as it is articulated by gay and lesbian people, the experimenter hopes to enhance the education and, hence, the practice of counseling for social work and counseling graduates of the University of Kentucky.
Empirical evidence shows that over the years, attitudes toward gay and lesbian people have experienced a positive trend. From 1978-1989, only 43 of 6,661 articles published in the six major psychological journals discussed the mental health issues unique to gay and lesbian people (Buhrke, Ben-Ezra, Hurley, & Ruprecht, 1992). Today, although the numbers are not so readily available, it can be reasonably assumed that the number of journal articles reflecting the gay and lesbian human experience vastly exceeds 43 and may in fact be in the hundreds. We may also discover a similar trend with regard to overall social acceptance.
A 1970 and 1984 nationwide survey found that approximately 70% of the American public believed that homosexuality was always wrong. In a more recent 1996 poll, the number believing that homosexuality was always wrong had fallen to 56% (Newman, Dannenfelser, & Benishek, 2002). It can therefore be inferred that the gap between people who are heterosexuals and homosexuals in the United States is gradually narrowing.
Part of this cultural awakening in our American society may be due to a change in the visibility of gay and lesbian people, after centuries of enduring unrestrained persecution. We may now see gay and lesbian people experiencing less shame, believing instead in the freedom to express their opinions, beliefs and affections in public places (Whitbeck, Chen, Hoyt, Tyler, & Johnson, 2004; Cheng, 2004). Although it may appear, at least from the perspective of a person who is gay or lesbian, that we are moving toward a more inclusive society, for some, these attempts at being a part of the fabric of every-day life can make them vulnerable to violence.
In 2003 (the most recent year for which figures are available) 1,430 gays and lesbians were victims of 1,239 hate crimes, by 1,313 perpetrators, nationwide (Crime in the United States, 2003). Studies have shown that victims of hate crimes have needed as many as five years to recover from the incident. By contrast, victims of non-bias crimes experienced a decrease in crime-related psychological problems within 2 years of the crime (U.S. Department of Justice, 1997). When appropriate support and resources are made available soon after the incident occurs, victims of hate crime may recover more quickly and be less likely to develop poor responses to future victimization.
Gay and lesbian people who have been victims of crime, not surprisingly, may opt to avoid the help of a therapist, for fear of continued ridicule, low self-esteem and fear of disclosing their sexual identity. This fear, when compounded by the stigma that still clouds anything associated with homosexuality in today’s dominant, neo-conservative society, may make it less likely that gay and lesbian people will present themselves for mental health assistance if their issues are related to their sexuality (Coleman & Remafedi, 1989). When these issues are considered in conjunction with the possibility that mental health practitioners themselves may harbor homophobic attitudes, the ordeal of seeking mental health assistance becomes even more perplexing for the gay and lesbian person (Ben-Ari, 2001; Morrow, 1996). Gays and lesbians may develop alternative methods to reduce their future exposure to ridicule, violence, threats of physical harm, verbal abuse and other types of potential aggression directed against them, such as developing non- or poorly working corollaries, giving rise to various psychosocial problems (Fone, 2000). The failure to recognize this unique feature of the homosexual human condition may complicate the delivery of appropriate, ethical and sound mental health treatment.
Even before the gay or lesbian individual is comfortable with his or her sexuality or “out,” he or she must first cope with the consequences of doing so. The psychological process of awareness and coming to know that one is homosexual can occur over a long period of time, frequently culminating in extreme emotional confusion (Gorsiorek, 1988). Often the homosexual person will struggle alone with this developmental event. Some may reject the thought entirely, and avoid the internal fears of establishing a homosexual identity. They may undergo an acute state of denial, resulting in the adoption of socially acceptable behaviors such as “academic or athletic overachievement, perfectionism, or over-involvement in extracurricular activities” (Fontaine & Hammond, 1996). By contrast, as a reaction to “undesirable” thoughts and attractions, individuals may exaggerate their perception of heterosexuality, favoring it above their true identity. Some may engage in promiscuous heterosexual sexual behavior. Females may become pregnant to establish a heterosexual identity. Males may marry and father children. Both sexes may carry on extramarital, homosexual affairs in secret (Fontaine & Hammond, 1996).
Each of these responses to the awakening that one may be homosexual can lead to long lasting hardship, and there is concern over the preparation of social workers and counseling psychologists to fully grasp the mental health issues facing people who are lesbian or gay (Ben-Ari, 2001). A 1987 survey conducted to discover levels of homophobia among 71 graduate level social workers and counseling psychologists found that 31.2% of those polled reported homophobic attitudes (Berkman & Zinberg, 1997). Berkman and Zinberg (1997) also found that 11.2% of their sample of 187 heterosexual social workers expressed homophobic attitudes. An additional study involving 235 social work, counseling, and psychology faculty and students from five Israeli universities revealed that the faculty had the highest levels of homophobia, followed by social work and then psychology students
(Ben-Are, 2001).
Not surprisingly, counselors may be making assumptions about the sexuality of their clients - assumptions that could interfere with their effective treatment. A study of bias in counselor trainees revealed that 83% of those who participated in the study assumed that their clients were heterosexual (Pope, Barret, Szymanski, and Chung, 2004). Finally, a 1987 survey of psychologists found that nearly 30% of those responding felt that treating homosexuality as pathological constituted an ethical practice (Newman, Dannenfelser, & Benishek, 2002). Having available culturally appropriate counseling for gay and lesbian people, establishing mental health interventions centered on the special issues this group presents, and offering appropriate advocacy and social action interventions may prove useful in effectively supporting this population (Pope, Barret, Szymanski, and Chung, 2004).
By examining the symbolic beliefs that students of social work and counseling may hold about gay and lesbian people, we may be able to offer suggestions that would help support a mental health practice that celebrates the unique character of gay and lesbian people, focusing on their particular position in our society and encouraging their healthy human development.
Method
Participants
This study focuses on the University of Kentucky master’s level social work and counseling program students who are at the onset of their academic program. Participants will be asked to participate in a forum hosted by the colleges of social work and counseling which will focus on minority awareness. Only data collected from participants who indicate that they are heterosexual and have had limited experiences with gay and lesbian people will be used in the analysis. (Among other demographic data questions, students will be asked to indicate their sexual orientation on a simple questionnaire and their exposure to gay and lesbian people.) All volunteers will be encouraged to attend, however.
Design
The study will be a simple pre-test/post-test design. The main dependent variables will consist of the Gay/Lesbian Conditioned Association Test (CAT), which will be administered twice, pre-treatment and post-treatment. The independent measure will be the in vivo exposure to gay and lesbian people.
Materials
Only three components of the Conditioned Association Test (CAT), which consists of twelve measures in its entirety, will be used. Specifically, the Gay/Lesbian CAT, Christian People CAT, and Obese People CAT will be administered. These surveys are general tools with the ability to determine how an individual feels about certain target groups. Reliability studies of the CAT indicate high reliability for the full scale (alpha coefficients ranging from .90 to .96) Additionally, participants will be asked to read and sign an informed consent form and fill out a demographic items questionnaire. Finally, an information sheet detailing the date, time, and place of the forum will be provided.
Procedure
University of Kentucky faculty who teach in the graduate social work or counseling program will be asked to allot a few minutes at the beginning of their class for the experimenter to solicit volunteers for the study. The students will be led to believe that they will be taking part in a study that may enhance their experiences with culturally diverse groups. The experimenter will record the names and contact information of those who volunteer. The experimenter will contact the students and discuss the parameters of the study and set a group meeting date and time.
Upon meeting en masse, the participants will be told that the two-hour forum, which will include lunch, will feature four target groups: gay and lesbian, obese and thin, Arab and Muslim, and young and old. The participants will be told that each target group will make a presentation and take questions from the participants.
Participants will be given packages of material consisting of a pencil, the Gay/Lesbian CAT, Christian People CAT, and the Obese People CAT, the informed consent form and the demographics questionnaire. Upon returning the materials, participants will be given an information sheet detailing the date, time, and location of the forum.
The speakers will be solicited using the campus newspaper. No compensation will be provided. Speakers, representing gay and lesbian, Christian, and obese people will be selected to speak based on their identity as a member of these target groups. The speakers will present information on such topics as dating, sex, relationships, hobbies and other interests. All information will have a focus on their lives as a member of the particular target group they are representing and how they have adjusted (or not adjusted) to being a member of the group. Following each presentation, each student will be given the opportunity to ask questions.
The Gay/Lesbian CAT will be used, primarily, in the evaluation of data for this study. Pretest and Posttest answers to questions comprising the Gay/Lesbian CAT will be calculated and a t-test will be performed to analyze for significance of change. Additionally, the following factors will be collected from the demographic worksheet and used in the further analysis of the CAT survey results: X1 (≤24 [1] ≥25 [2]) X2 (Male [1] Female [2]) X3 (White [1] Black [2] Hispanic [3] Asian [4] Other [5]) X4 (Social Work Major [1] Counseling Major [2] Other [3]). Data collected as a result of the administering the other CAT surveys may be used to discover a trend between attitude toward gay and lesbian people and overall view of the three target groups. The variables to be analyzed may be organized as follows: Gay/Lesbian CAT (CAT1), Christian People CAT (CAT2), and the Obese People CAT (CAT3).
The format for additional analysis may be designed as follows: (Participant 1 = (CAT1), X1 (≤24 [1] ≥25 [2]) X2 (Male [1] Female [2]) X3 (White [1] Black [2] Hispanic [3] Asian [4] Other [5]) X4 (Social Work Major [1] Counseling Major [2] Other [3]) and so on. (Participant 1 = (CAT2), X1 (≤24 [1] ≥25 [2]) X2 (Male [1] Female [2]) X3 (White [1] Black [2] Hispanic [3] Asian [4] Other [5]) X4 (Social Work Major [1] Counseling Major [2] Other [3]) and so on.
Results
Although the literature does not offer a great deal of information related to this type of study, earlier studies have found that prior contact with gay and lesbian people, generally, has been successful in predicting favorable attitude change (Mohipp & Morry, 2004). Considering that this study can serve as a “period of prior contact” for the students, there may be a similar favorable impact on students’ attitude. Early exposure to gay and lesbian people may enhance the University of Kentucky’s social work and counseling program’s gay and lesbian awareness efforts. More broadly, by enhancing student knowledge of the gay and lesbian person’s human condition prior to their engaging this population in a therapeutic setting, we may be helping to increase the potential for an uncomplicated, appropriate, ethical, and sound mental health experience.
Discussion
Gay and lesbian people may struggle with accommodating cultural expectations that are far removed from their actual lives, potentially resulting in the development of dissonant personality characteristics, making them a likely group to be in need of counseling assistance (Portes, Sandhu, and Longwell-Grise, 2002). It has been theorized that the harshest consequence of this form of discrimination is the damaging affect it may have on the development of a positive gay or lesbian identity (Liang & Alimo, 2005; Erikson, 1968). This level of developmental tension may be understood as an important risk factor in the etiology of suicide or other self-destructive behaviors (Erikson, 1968; Portes, Daya, & Longwell-Grice, 2002). There is concern that homophobia among helping professionals may have a negative impact on the provision of mental health services for people who are gay or lesbian (Oles, Black, & Cramer, 1999; Newman, Dannenfelser & Benishek, 2002). We must make every effort to ensure that gay and lesbian people have access to unbiased mental health assistance.
References
Ben-Ari, A. (2001). Homosexuality and heterosexism: Views from academics in the helping
professions. British Journal of Social Work, 31, 119-131. Retrieved September 4, 2005
from ProQuest database.
Buhrke, R, Ben-Ezra, L., Hurleym, M. & Ruprecht, L. (1992). Content analysis
methodological critique of articles concerning lesbian and gay issues in counseling
journals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39(1), 91-99. Retrieved September 5, 2005
from ProQuest database.
Cheng, Z. (2004). Hate crimes, posttraumatic stress disorder and implications for counseling
lesbians and gay men. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 35(4), 8-17.
Retrieved September 8, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Clarke, V., Kitzinger, C., & Potter, J. (2004). ‘Kids are just cruel anyway’: Lesbian and gay
parents’ talk about homophobic bullying. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 43(4),
531-551. Retrieved September 5, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Coleman, E. & Remafedi, G. (1989). Gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents: A critical
challenge to counselors. Journal of Counseling and Development, 68, 36-47. Retrieved
September 2, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W.W. Norton.
Fone, B. (2000). Homophobia. New York; Henry Holt and Company.
Fontaine, J. & Hammond, N. (1996). Counseling issues with gay and lesbian adolescents
Adolescence, 12, 817-831. Retrieved September 9, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Gonsiorek, J. (1988). Mental health issues of gay and lesbian adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 9, 114-122. Retrieved September 10, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Liang, C. & Alimo, C. (2005). The impact of white heterosexual students’ interactions on
attitudes toward lesbian, gay and bisexual people: A longitudinal study. Journal of College
Student Development, 46(3), 237-251. Retrieved September 5, 2005 from ProQuest
database.
Morrow, D. (1996). Heterosexism: Hidden discrimination in social work education. The
Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 5(4), 1-16. Retrieved September 3, 2005 from
ProQuest database.
Newman, B., Dannenfelser, P, and Benishek (2002). Assessing beginning social work and
counseling students’ acceptance of lesbians and gay men. Journal of Social Work, 38(2),
273-278. Retrieved September 5, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Oles, T, Black, B., & Cramer, E. (1999). From attitude change to effective practice:
Exploring the relationship. Journal of Social Work Education, 35, 87-100. Retrieved
September 5, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Pope, M., Barret, B, Symanski, D., Chung, Y., et. al. (2004). Culturally appropriate career
counseling with gay and lesbian clients. The Career Development Quarterly, 53(2), 158-
178. Retrieved September 4, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Portes, P., Sandhu, D., & Longwell-Grice, R. (2002). Understanding adolescent suicide: A
psychosocial interpretation of developmental and contextual factors. Adolescence,
37(148), 805-815. Retrieved September 5, 2005 from ProQuest database.
Summary of Hate Crime Statistics http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0004885.html
Whitbeck, L., Chen, X., Hoyt, D., Tyler, K., & Johnson, D. (2004). Mental Disorder,
substance strategies, and victimization among gay, lesbian, and bisexual homeless and
runaway adolescents. The Journal of Sex Research, 41(4), 329-334. Retrieved September
5, 2005 from ProQuest database.