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ANT11CAG
ANTHROPOLOGY OF GLOBALISATION - FASHION
Anthropology is the study of humanity and cultural diversity. Anthropologists encompass human experiences and strive to give meaning to human culture. Anthropology is divided into four main categories biological anthropology, anthropological archaeology, anthropological linguistics and social/cultural anthropology. Anthropologists have used their knowledge in recent years as to understand the impact of globalisation upon culture.
Biological anthropology deals with both the social behaviour and the biology of people. Studies in this field are carried out on the skeletal remains of people from the past or on the biological characteristics of living people. Biological anthropologists are interested in human evolution, from our origins and diversity in the past to our probable future as inhabitants of this planet. Biological anthropology is a perplexing combination of social studies and biological studies. The two primary concept areas of biological anthropology are human evolution and human biosocial variation. Particular attention is given to findings of human palaeontology which gives biological anthropologists the chance to study out ancestry who walked on two legs to several million years ago. This discipline aims to comprehend our biological adaptations through studying human’s evolutionary history.
Anthropological archaeology studies the cultures long ago. Archaeology is the study of human cultures through the recovery and analysis of their material relics. The remains of ancient societies are often fragmentary so therefore archaeologists piece together the relics to understand the ways of the past. Governments and heritage associations use archaeology to help preserve a nation’s architectural, historical and cultural heritage.
Linguistic anthropology is a study of languages and cultures of the peoples of the world. Anthropological linguistics embraces the field of language and culture and address the development of cultural, historical, and philological aspects of linguistics. Linguistic anthropologists are particularly concerned with fields such as dialects, changes in language over time, ethnolinguistics and sociolinguistics. Ethnolinguistics studies the relationship between language and culture, and the way different ethnic groups use their language to view the world. The Sapir-Whorf theory is an example of studies in linguistic anthropology. This theory proposes that a person’s world view stemms from their vocabulary and syntax. Theories like this demonstrate the relationship studied between language and culture in anthroplogy.
The largest branch of anthropology is cultural anthropology which seeks to understand the internal workings of a particular culture. It assists outsiders gain an understanding of what would otherwise seem as a bizarre or foreign behaviour. Cultural anthropologists focus on understanding ways people live in different societies around the world. This is considered a holistic study of humanity, as holistic analysis takes all social factors into consideration. Anthropologists compare their observations and experiences from their studies, this is known as ethnographic research. Ethnography is a type of research in cultural anthropology which focuses on close observation and interaction. Anthropologists when using the comparative method learn to avoid “ethnocentrism” which is the tendency to evaluate others cultures by comparison to their own culture.
The most fundamental aspect of anthropology is fieldwork. Anthropologists devote a lengthy amount of their time to studying and emerging themselves into a small scale society. It is essential that anthropologists de-centre themselves from their own culture so they can fully analysis their research from a critical perspective. Generally human beings view points tend to be one sided and from a specific cultural influence, this is an ethnocentric perspective. Studying anthropology assists us with appreciating others cultures and understading the importance of beliefs and behaviours of others from their perspective (Robbins 2002). This view point is referred by anthropologists as cultural relitivism. Cultural relitivism emphasises that all cultures are worthy of repect and when studying these cultures it is important to suspend judgement. Cultural differences are explained by emic and etic perspectives. Emic perspectices is the ethnograpghic research approch to the way members of a specific culture percieve the world. This is the natives persons point of view. The Etic perspective is the ethnographic research approch to the way non members percieve and interpret behaviour assosiated with a given culture. These methods assist anthropologists synthesise their findings.
Today, anthropology has evolved from studying exotic cultures as an increasing number of anthropologists studying their own culture and applying anthropological perspectives. Much of anthropological theory has been motivated by an appreciation of and interest in the interconnectedness of local and the global interests. With major social, economic, transportantation and technological evolutions occuring in the last century a world culture is evolving which has sparked interest in concern regarding the anthropology of globalisation (Inda, Xavier, Rosaldo, 2002). This increase of global interconnectedness is considered and underlying factor by cultural anthropologists that there has been a significant increase in social homogonisation. Through hegemony western culture has been the dominatant force in shaping global culture. The anthropology of globalisation provides insight as to the experiences of human beings as cultural interaction has moved across boundaries re-shaping local communities.
Capitalism is an economic system in which goods and services are produced, exchanged and owned by individuals with minimal governmental regulation. This free market economic system has been spread by globalisation which is the growing integration of economies and societies around the world. So how can an economic system affect small-scale culture? It has been debated that globalised culture is ruining traditional forms of culture. There is absolutely no doubt that western culture is the domineering force in the world today. In Tanzania Iman Mani discovered that Western style suits are replacing traditional African dress. The suit and tie is signifies the spread capitalist fashion through globalisation. The loss of traditional dress is becoming common as global integration is at the expense of local disintegration. However some cultures are fighting back and refusing to lose their sense of identity. This is evident in the Arab world today as there has been a shift back to traditional Muslim dress. The global penetration of capitalism through globalisation draws individuals not only to market relations put to forms of resistance.
With the construction of consumerism fueled by the evolution of free market economies the communities producing commodites are greatly efffected by the culture of capitalism. Capitalists use tools for justifications of their injustices as a method of keeping consumers happy and feeling “guilt free”. Clothing giant Gap has a section on their website dedicated to justifying their production methods and explaining their employee conditions. The BBC documentary “Gap and Nike: No Sweat?”clearly shows significant breaches of their policies as well as shocking reports of child labour. Acording to Robbins (2002) a key feature of factory labourers is that they are upwardly mobile and willing to emmigrate. Saipan is described as a “floating sweatshop” as the land is American, however the workers are not (Kenyon, 2000). Majority are from China, flown over in there thousands hoping to find the American dream. Clothes made in Saipan can claim that they are ‘made in the USA’ fooling consumers that they are free from foreign sweatshops. Anthropologists use a critical approach to their studies to discover that “things are to what they seem”(Gomes, 2004). Capitalism is affecting these migrant workers and causing “emotional trauma” according to a female migrant worker (Kenyon, 2000). The effects of globalisation on these migrant workers are terrible as they are taking them away from their homelands for the sole purposes of industrial exploitation.
The role of capitalism has increased the gap between rich and poor, therefore creating social discontent. Marx and Engles argue that capitalism creates revolution as the proletariate are disgruntled with the capitalists constant search for profits (Robbins, 2002). Mexico is an example of a labour force exploited by foreign capitalists as a means of cheap labour. In 1983 Fernández- Kelly studied the sewing techniques of women in Mexican garment maquiladoras. This job is considered unskilled as the workers performing the tasks are women (Fernández Kelly, 1983). Since the NAFTA was established in 1994, poor treatment and low pay for Mexican workers has been further legitimismed by the treaty. The tready does not just damage the livelyhood of those working in the factories. NAFTA sells off Mexican soveriengty and eroders the autonomy of indigenous communities. The Chiapas in Mexico were concerned NAFTA would cripple their way of life there therefore have taken a strong stance against the free trade act. Their anti-NAFTA stance has led to violent intervention from government forces as a method of silencing the native peoples concerns about global industries ruining their local industry.
Another culture which is being dramatically afflicted by the production of fashion is Cambodia. “Gap and Nike: No Sweat?” illustrates the impact of sweatshop labour through an inquistive journalistic perspective. The BBC documentary studies the lives of the workers of “June Textiles” factory situated in Cambodia. Girls as young as 12 are leaving their traditional rural homelands to work in pittiful conditions in factories and live in squalor. Multinational corporations often choose to use Labour from third world nations as paying workers as little as possible is a means of making profit. Poverty appeared to be the main motivation for the girls to leave their familes and produce garments for multinationals. The workers felt that they “had no choice because they were poor” (Kenyon, 2000). However capitalism relies on a class division in order to operate. It is interesting to consider the question of what creates poverty? Capitalism has radically changed our beliefs on what we consider to be wealth as wealth is now measured in GNP. Gap and Nike both had persistance breaches of their code of contuct displaying that at the end of the day money is worth allot more to these massive corportations than human rights.
In studies by Rosaldo (2001) he found that we are increasingly becoming a “world where borders and boundaries have become increasingly porus, allowing more and more peoples and cultures to be cast into intense and immediate contact with each other”. This process has led to further studies in cultural dominance and exchange leading anthropologists to consider the effect of global impacts on local peoples and culture. It seems that there is becoming an increasing loss of tradition however this is being rectified by local communities incorporating their local influences into something that is popular globally. This is called social hetrogenisation, which is a passive form of resistance to social homogenisation and globalisation.
Through using a critical approach in their studies Niessen, Jones and Leshkowich (2004) have discovered that the overpowering effect of western culture has led to the “re-orientalising of style”. Dress has become a form of resistance and a means of re embracing traditional culture and style. In an argument to the retaliation of the Asian fashion industry anthropologist Edward Said argues that without adapting to Western fashion styles it “prevents nations from fully embracing international development”(Said, 1985). Said’s argument suggests that culture must be sacrificed in order to fully become part of the Western capitalist system.
Through the studies of Aihwa Ong (1987) it is evident that not only are Asian women detesting western dress they are also resisting the ways of assembly plants. Ong discovered in her Malaysia fieldwork that women use religious responses to confront issues of corporate and social control enabling them to vent their frustration at the system. The women in these Malaysian factories claim “spirit possession”. In doing this a spirit leader is then called in, therefore shutting the plant down for 3 days. This gives the women a chance to escape their working conditions and attempt to beat the capitalist system through resistance.
Consequently, it has been observed that globalised “cultural” industries are taking over traditional forms of creation and dissemination of culture. Local culture’s role as an integral part of people's life is eroded and it ceases to serve as the means of constructing societal values, reproducing group identity and building social cohesion. The end result becomes global integration at the expense of local disintegration.
ANTHROPOLOGY OF GLOBALISATION - FASHION
Anthropology is the study of humanity and cultural diversity. Anthropologists encompass human experiences and strive to give meaning to human culture. Anthropology is divided into four main categories biological anthropology, anthropological archaeology, anthropological linguistics and social/cultural anthropology. Anthropologists have used their knowledge in recent years as to understand the impact of globalisation upon culture.
Biological anthropology deals with both the social behaviour and the biology of people. Studies in this field are carried out on the skeletal remains of people from the past or on the biological characteristics of living people. Biological anthropologists are interested in human evolution, from our origins and diversity in the past to our probable future as inhabitants of this planet. Biological anthropology is a perplexing combination of social studies and biological studies. The two primary concept areas of biological anthropology are human evolution and human biosocial variation. Particular attention is given to findings of human palaeontology which gives biological anthropologists the chance to study out ancestry who walked on two legs to several million years ago. This discipline aims to comprehend our biological adaptations through studying human’s evolutionary history.
Anthropological archaeology studies the cultures long ago. Archaeology is the study of human cultures through the recovery and analysis of their material relics. The remains of ancient societies are often fragmentary so therefore archaeologists piece together the relics to understand the ways of the past. Governments and heritage associations use archaeology to help preserve a nation’s architectural, historical and cultural heritage.
Linguistic anthropology is a study of languages and cultures of the peoples of the world. Anthropological linguistics embraces the field of language and culture and address the development of cultural, historical, and philological aspects of linguistics. Linguistic anthropologists are particularly concerned with fields such as dialects, changes in language over time, ethnolinguistics and sociolinguistics. Ethnolinguistics studies the relationship between language and culture, and the way different ethnic groups use their language to view the world. The Sapir-Whorf theory is an example of studies in linguistic anthropology. This theory proposes that a person’s world view stemms from their vocabulary and syntax. Theories like this demonstrate the relationship studied between language and culture in anthroplogy.
The largest branch of anthropology is cultural anthropology which seeks to understand the internal workings of a particular culture. It assists outsiders gain an understanding of what would otherwise seem as a bizarre or foreign behaviour. Cultural anthropologists focus on understanding ways people live in different societies around the world. This is considered a holistic study of humanity, as holistic analysis takes all social factors into consideration. Anthropologists compare their observations and experiences from their studies, this is known as ethnographic research. Ethnography is a type of research in cultural anthropology which focuses on close observation and interaction. Anthropologists when using the comparative method learn to avoid “ethnocentrism” which is the tendency to evaluate others cultures by comparison to their own culture.
The most fundamental aspect of anthropology is fieldwork. Anthropologists devote a lengthy amount of their time to studying and emerging themselves into a small scale society. It is essential that anthropologists de-centre themselves from their own culture so they can fully analysis their research from a critical perspective. Generally human beings view points tend to be one sided and from a specific cultural influence, this is an ethnocentric perspective. Studying anthropology assists us with appreciating others cultures and understading the importance of beliefs and behaviours of others from their perspective (Robbins 2002). This view point is referred by anthropologists as cultural relitivism. Cultural relitivism emphasises that all cultures are worthy of repect and when studying these cultures it is important to suspend judgement. Cultural differences are explained by emic and etic perspectives. Emic perspectices is the ethnograpghic research approch to the way members of a specific culture percieve the world. This is the natives persons point of view. The Etic perspective is the ethnographic research approch to the way non members percieve and interpret behaviour assosiated with a given culture. These methods assist anthropologists synthesise their findings.
Today, anthropology has evolved from studying exotic cultures as an increasing number of anthropologists studying their own culture and applying anthropological perspectives. Much of anthropological theory has been motivated by an appreciation of and interest in the interconnectedness of local and the global interests. With major social, economic, transportantation and technological evolutions occuring in the last century a world culture is evolving which has sparked interest in concern regarding the anthropology of globalisation (Inda, Xavier, Rosaldo, 2002). This increase of global interconnectedness is considered and underlying factor by cultural anthropologists that there has been a significant increase in social homogonisation. Through hegemony western culture has been the dominatant force in shaping global culture. The anthropology of globalisation provides insight as to the experiences of human beings as cultural interaction has moved across boundaries re-shaping local communities.
Capitalism is an economic system in which goods and services are produced, exchanged and owned by individuals with minimal governmental regulation. This free market economic system has been spread by globalisation which is the growing integration of economies and societies around the world. So how can an economic system affect small-scale culture? It has been debated that globalised culture is ruining traditional forms of culture. There is absolutely no doubt that western culture is the domineering force in the world today. In Tanzania Iman Mani discovered that Western style suits are replacing traditional African dress. The suit and tie is signifies the spread capitalist fashion through globalisation. The loss of traditional dress is becoming common as global integration is at the expense of local disintegration. However some cultures are fighting back and refusing to lose their sense of identity. This is evident in the Arab world today as there has been a shift back to traditional Muslim dress. The global penetration of capitalism through globalisation draws individuals not only to market relations put to forms of resistance.
With the construction of consumerism fueled by the evolution of free market economies the communities producing commodites are greatly efffected by the culture of capitalism. Capitalists use tools for justifications of their injustices as a method of keeping consumers happy and feeling “guilt free”. Clothing giant Gap has a section on their website dedicated to justifying their production methods and explaining their employee conditions. The BBC documentary “Gap and Nike: No Sweat?”clearly shows significant breaches of their policies as well as shocking reports of child labour. Acording to Robbins (2002) a key feature of factory labourers is that they are upwardly mobile and willing to emmigrate. Saipan is described as a “floating sweatshop” as the land is American, however the workers are not (Kenyon, 2000). Majority are from China, flown over in there thousands hoping to find the American dream. Clothes made in Saipan can claim that they are ‘made in the USA’ fooling consumers that they are free from foreign sweatshops. Anthropologists use a critical approach to their studies to discover that “things are to what they seem”(Gomes, 2004). Capitalism is affecting these migrant workers and causing “emotional trauma” according to a female migrant worker (Kenyon, 2000). The effects of globalisation on these migrant workers are terrible as they are taking them away from their homelands for the sole purposes of industrial exploitation.
The role of capitalism has increased the gap between rich and poor, therefore creating social discontent. Marx and Engles argue that capitalism creates revolution as the proletariate are disgruntled with the capitalists constant search for profits (Robbins, 2002). Mexico is an example of a labour force exploited by foreign capitalists as a means of cheap labour. In 1983 Fernández- Kelly studied the sewing techniques of women in Mexican garment maquiladoras. This job is considered unskilled as the workers performing the tasks are women (Fernández Kelly, 1983). Since the NAFTA was established in 1994, poor treatment and low pay for Mexican workers has been further legitimismed by the treaty. The tready does not just damage the livelyhood of those working in the factories. NAFTA sells off Mexican soveriengty and eroders the autonomy of indigenous communities. The Chiapas in Mexico were concerned NAFTA would cripple their way of life there therefore have taken a strong stance against the free trade act. Their anti-NAFTA stance has led to violent intervention from government forces as a method of silencing the native peoples concerns about global industries ruining their local industry.
Another culture which is being dramatically afflicted by the production of fashion is Cambodia. “Gap and Nike: No Sweat?” illustrates the impact of sweatshop labour through an inquistive journalistic perspective. The BBC documentary studies the lives of the workers of “June Textiles” factory situated in Cambodia. Girls as young as 12 are leaving their traditional rural homelands to work in pittiful conditions in factories and live in squalor. Multinational corporations often choose to use Labour from third world nations as paying workers as little as possible is a means of making profit. Poverty appeared to be the main motivation for the girls to leave their familes and produce garments for multinationals. The workers felt that they “had no choice because they were poor” (Kenyon, 2000). However capitalism relies on a class division in order to operate. It is interesting to consider the question of what creates poverty? Capitalism has radically changed our beliefs on what we consider to be wealth as wealth is now measured in GNP. Gap and Nike both had persistance breaches of their code of contuct displaying that at the end of the day money is worth allot more to these massive corportations than human rights.
In studies by Rosaldo (2001) he found that we are increasingly becoming a “world where borders and boundaries have become increasingly porus, allowing more and more peoples and cultures to be cast into intense and immediate contact with each other”. This process has led to further studies in cultural dominance and exchange leading anthropologists to consider the effect of global impacts on local peoples and culture. It seems that there is becoming an increasing loss of tradition however this is being rectified by local communities incorporating their local influences into something that is popular globally. This is called social hetrogenisation, which is a passive form of resistance to social homogenisation and globalisation.
Through using a critical approach in their studies Niessen, Jones and Leshkowich (2004) have discovered that the overpowering effect of western culture has led to the “re-orientalising of style”. Dress has become a form of resistance and a means of re embracing traditional culture and style. In an argument to the retaliation of the Asian fashion industry anthropologist Edward Said argues that without adapting to Western fashion styles it “prevents nations from fully embracing international development”(Said, 1985). Said’s argument suggests that culture must be sacrificed in order to fully become part of the Western capitalist system.
Through the studies of Aihwa Ong (1987) it is evident that not only are Asian women detesting western dress they are also resisting the ways of assembly plants. Ong discovered in her Malaysia fieldwork that women use religious responses to confront issues of corporate and social control enabling them to vent their frustration at the system. The women in these Malaysian factories claim “spirit possession”. In doing this a spirit leader is then called in, therefore shutting the plant down for 3 days. This gives the women a chance to escape their working conditions and attempt to beat the capitalist system through resistance.
Consequently, it has been observed that globalised “cultural” industries are taking over traditional forms of creation and dissemination of culture. Local culture’s role as an integral part of people's life is eroded and it ceases to serve as the means of constructing societal values, reproducing group identity and building social cohesion. The end result becomes global integration at the expense of local disintegration.