The archaeology of Alexander the Great: 3. Babylonian Diary
The only (accepted) primary source on Alexander is the Astronomical Diary that was kept in the temple of the Babylonian supreme god Marduk. It is written in Babylonian.
The Battle of Gaugamela (also called the Battle of Arbela) in 331 BCE between Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia, resulted in victory for Alexander and led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire.
"Astronomical Diary concerning month VI and VII of the fifth year of Artašata who is called Darius"
Describing the omens before the battle of Gaugamela, the fight itself (on 1 October 331), and how the "king of Asia" entered Babylon.
See also:
- A. Sachs and H. Hunger, Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylon (Vienna 1988-1996) I, p. 179, No. -330 ‘Obv.’ 14’-15’ and ‘Rev.’ 3’-15’ (BM 36761 + BM 36390). Photo (full-size): Pl. 29. Copy: Wiseman 1985: 121
- Last edition: Van der Spek 2003: 297-299
[Year five of Artašata who is called Darius, Month Six]
[The first part is missing.]
[14 entries, then:]
Night of the thirtieth: Last part of the night [lacuna]
[That month, the equivalent for 1 shekel of silver was: barley] [lacuna] kur; mustard, 3 kur, at the end of the month [lacuna]; sesame, 1 pân, 5 minas.
At that time, Jupiter was in Scorpio; Venus was in Leo, at the end of the month in Virgo; Saturn was in Pisces; Mercury and Mars, which had set, were not visible.
That month, the river level [lacuna].
That month, the eleventh, panic occurred in the camp before the king [The Macedonians] encamped in front of the king.
The twenty-fourth, in the morning, the king of the world [erected his] standard [lacuna]. Opposite each other they fought and a heavy defeat of the troops [of the king he inflicted]. The king, his troops deserted him and to their cities [they went] They fled to the land of the Guti.
[Month seven, the first of which followed the thirtieth of the preceding month;] sunset to moonset 13º30' [lacuna].
Night of the second: The moon was above Jupiter [lacuna]
Night of the seventh: Beginning of the night:
[End of the tablet. On the reverse side, the astronomical observations of the month Tašrîtu are illegible. At the end of the tablet, the following can be read:]
[That month, the equivalent] for 1 shekel of silver was: [lacuna]
That month, from the first to the [lacuna], came to Babylon, saying: 'Esagila [will be restored] and the Babylonians to the treasury of Esagila [their tithe will give.']
On the eleventh, in Sippar an order of Al[exander to the Babylonians was sent as follow]s: 'Into your houses I shall not enter.'
On the thirteenth, [the vanguard advanced to the Sikil]la gate, to the outer gate of Esagila and [the Babylonians prostrated themselves].
On the fourteenth, these Ionians a bull [lacuna] short, fatty tissue [lacuna]. Alexander, king of the world, came into Babylon [lacuna], horses and equipment of [lacuna] and the Babylonians and the people of [lacuna] a message to
[end of tablet]
A new reading is proposed by Bert van der Spek of the Free University of Amsterdam (Netherlands) and Irving Finkel of the British Museum of cuneiform tablets (BM 36761 + BM 36390) in the British Museum.
TRANSLATION / Obverse: BM 36761 (left part) || BM 36390 (right part)
Extract:
14’ That month (VI = Ululu), on the 11th (18 September 331 BC), panic occurred in the camp before the king. [.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. The Hanaeans] 15’ encamped in front of the king. On the 24th (1 October 331 BC), in the morning, the king of the world [erected his] standard [.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..] 16’ Opposite each other they fought and a heavy defeat of the troops [of the king he inflicted. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ] 17’ The king, his troops deserted him and to their cities [.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..] 18’ [to the l]and of the Gutians they fled.
TRANSLATION / Reverse: BM 36761
Extract:
3’ That month (= VII = Tashritu), from the 1st until [.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . On the nth day messengers] 4’ came to Babylon (saying) as follows: "Esagila [will be restored .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..] 5’ and the Babylonians [will give their tithes] to the treasury of Esagila [ .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..] 6’ On the 11th day (18 October 331) in Sippar an order of Al[exander, the king of the world, to the Babylonians (...) was sent] 7’ [as follow]s: “Into your houses I shall not enter.” On the 13th day (20 October 331) [Greeks entered] 8’ [the Sikil]la gate, the Outer gate of Esagila and [they prostrated themselves. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..] 9’ [.. .. ..]. The 14th day (21 October), these Greeks a bull, [.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ] 10’ [n] short [ribs, n] fatty tissues (of the intestines as sacrifice) [sacrificed .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..] 11’ [On the nth day] Alexander, the king of the world, entered Babylon [.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..] 12’ [Hor]ses and equipment [.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ] 13’ [The šatammu?] and the Babylonians and the people [of the land? .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ] 14’ [.. .. ..] a parchment letter to [the Babylonians .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..] 15’ [.. .. ..] as follows: [“.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..]
The omens:
Day 13 [20 September]: Sunset to moonrise: 8º. There was a lunar eclipse. Its totality was covered at the moment when Jupiter set and Saturn rose. During totality the west wind blew, during clearing the east wind. During the eclipse, deaths and plague occurred.
Day 15: Sunset to moonrise: 16º. There were clouds in the sky. The moon was 32/3 cubits below [the star] Alpha Arietis, the moon having passed to the east. A meteor which flashed, its light was seen on the ground; very overcast, lightning flashed.
At that time, Jupiter was in Scorpio; Venus was in Leo, at the end of the month in Virgo; Saturn was in Pisces; Mercury and Mars, which had set, were not visible.
That month, the river level was [lacuna].
On the 11th of that month, panic occurred in the camp before the king.
The significance of the eclipse was described in Enûma Anu Enlil:
If on either the 13th or 14th Ulûlu the moon is dark; the watch passes and it is dark; his features are dark like lapis lazuli; he is obscured until his midpoint; the west quadrant - as it covered, the west wind blew; the sky is dark; his light is covered. [the significance is:] The son of the king will become purified for the throne but will not take the throne. An intruder will come with the princes of the west; for eight years he will exercise kingship; he will conquer the enemy army; there will be abundance and riches on his path; he will continually pursue his enemies; and his luck will not run out.
- 29th ahû tablet of Enûma Anu Enlil; obv.59-61
The target of Alexander’s army was full of foreboding at these clear signs of impending doom.
This archaeology provides, as stated above, the single, agreed, primary source for Alexander and it provides a picture of his defeat of Persia quite different in important regards to that of the later sources.
According to Arrian, Darius's force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry; Diodorus Siculus put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry; Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops, while according to Curtius Rufus it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry. Furthermore according to Arrian, Diodorus, and Curtius, Darius had 200 chariots while Arrian mentions 15 war elephants. Included in Darius's infantry were about 2,000 Greek mercenary hoplites.
The text about Gaugamela (above) makes it clear that the army of Darius was deserting on the eve of the battle, and it is only a minor exaggeration to say that Alexander attacked a group of fleeing soldiers. This information flatly contradicts a classical account like that of Arrian, and should be preferred because it is contemporary and more or less confirmed by Diodorus of Sicily.
Other interesting information is, for example, that Alexander died in 11 June 323 (not 10 or 13, as has been maintained). We have gained a better understanding of the chronology of the wars of Artaxerxes II Mnemon. We now know that the Seleucid king Antiochus II Theos (261-246 BCE) had a son named Apammu - a rare instance of a Macedonian accepting an Iranian name. We have gained a lot of information about the Parthian conquest of Babylon. Many examples can be added. In short, the Astronomical Diaries are a very valuable source for historical information that deserves more attention.
- The Diaries as Source for the Modern Historian
The imperial bodyguard and small Greek contingent provided Darius with the only reliable troops to oppose Alexander, as we can now see that the main army was disintegrating before the battle. The huge numbers and valiant victory ascribed to Alexander by the well-known and well-publicised 'histories' can be seen now for what they are - the basis for the Alexander Romance within the context for the veneration of Alexander.